UC-NRLF 


^B    IS?    31^ 


V 


OF  rim     ^ 


New  York  University  Series 

OF 

Graduate  School  Studies 


THE    ESSAY    IN    AMERICAN 
LITERATURE 

BY 

ADALINE  MAY  CONWAY,  Ph.D. 


FROM    THE    PRESIDENT'S    OFFICE 
TO  THE  TOIVEESITY  LIBRARY 


NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY 

NEW  YORK,  N.  Y. 

1914 


THE    ESSAY    IN    AMERICAN 
LITERATURE 


A  THESIS  SUBMITTED  TO  NEW  YORK 
UNIVERSITY  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT 
OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE 
DEGREE   OF    DOCTOR   OF   PHILOSOPHY 


BY 

ADALINE  MAY  CONWAY,  Ph.D. 


New  York  University  Series  of 
Graduate  School  Studies,  No.  3 


Published  by 

THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 

NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY 

NEW  YORK,  N.  Y. 

1914 


Copyright  1914 

BY 

Adaline  May  Conway 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Intkoduction. 

A  brief  sketch  of  the  Essay;  its  origin;  develop- 
ment and  the  classes  into  which  it  divided 
itself 

Chapter  I.     The  Colonial  Period. 

Brief  survey  of  the  Essay  in  England  and  its 
influence  on  the  colonial  writers  in  America. 
Colonial  predecessors  of  the  American  Essayists. 
The  Periodical  Essay  in  England  with  special 
reference  to  the  Spectator  and  kindred  publi- 
cations. The  appearance  of  Essays,  original 
and  borrowed  in  the  American  colonial  news- 
papers and  magazines 


Chapter  II.     The  First 
Benjamin    Franklin    as 
Essays  of  the  period. 


American  Period. 

3    an    Essayist.    Political 

Other  Essayists 


Chapter  III.    The  Modern  Period. 

Washington  Irving's  influence  as  an  Essayist. 
Critical  Essays.  Critical  and  Personal  Essays. 
The  Transcendental  Essayists.  Emerson,  the 
Ideal  American  Essayist.  The  Nature  Essay- 
ists. Thoreau  and  his  contributions  to  our 
literary  style.  The  Personal  ^Essayists.  The 
Essay  of  Today.     Conclusion 


Bibliography. 
Section     I. 
Section    II. 
Section  III. 

Section  IV. 


Vita 


References  and  Authorities      .    .    . 
Magazine  Articles  on  the  Essay 
Early  American  Newspapers  and 

Periodicals 

American  Essayists 

(A)  Early  Essayists 

(B)  Major  Modern  Essayists     . 

(C)  Supplementary  List  of  Minor 
American  Essayists      .... 


1-12 


13-26 


27-54 


55-83 


85-87 
88-89 

89-90 

90-92 
92-96 

96-127 
128 


^b*4io9 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/essayinamericanlOOconwrich 


THE  ESSAY  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

_  „  The  Essay,  as  such,  has  flourished  in  English  liter- 

The  £ss&y — & 

neglected  ature  foi  three  centuries,  and  claims  a  noble  heritage 
field  of  jj^  illustrious  antiquity.     Since  its  first  appearance  it 

has  numbered  amongj  /ts  cultivators  the  most  famous 
and  best-beloved  representatives  of  our  literary  life.  Other 
literatures  have  fostered  the  Essay  until  the  permanence  and 
universality  of  this  deUghtful  literary  product  seem  to  be  recog- 
nizable  and  assured.  Nevertheless,  )as  a  form  of  literary  art,  t/ 
the  Essay  has  suffered  an  almost  absolute  neglect  at  the  hands 
of  scholars.!  Numerous  works  have  been  dedicated  to  the  study 
of  poetry,  the  drama  and  the  novel,  but  with  the  exception  of 
fragmentary  chapters  and  Articles,  the  Essay  from  an  historical 
and  stylistic  point  of  view  remains  uninvestigated.  An  intensive 
study  of  its  development  would  take  me  far  beyond  the  limitations 
of  this  work,  but  a  brief  survey  of  its  nature  and  history  seems 
necessary  before  undertaking  the  investigation  of  the  Essay  in 
American  literature. 

Difficulty  of  The  fact  that  a  comprehensive  definition  of  essay 
definition.  sccms  impossible  to  find  is  significant  in  suggesting 
one  reason  why  scholars  have  hesitated  to  approach  this  sub- 
ject. Worcester  calls  it  "  a  short  treatise  or  dissertation,  a  tract; " 
and  Webster  defines  it  as  ''a  composition  treating  of  any  particu- 
lar subject; — usually  shorter  and  less  methodical  than  a  formal, 
finished  treatise."  But  it  is  as  confusing  to  compare  an  essay 
with  a  treatise  as  it  is  hard  sometimes  to  draw  the  line  between 
them.  Some  essays  are  as  lengthy  as  a  treatise,  and  others  by 
their  brevity  or  by  their  nature,  are  in  no  wise  to  be  classed  with 
treatises  or  dissertations.  Moreover,  as  to  being  less  methodical, 
the  essay  has  a  method  quite  distinctive  and  obvious,  though  it 
may  be  less  formal  than  that  of  the  treatise.  I  No  dictionary  defi- 
nition, and,  in  fact,  no  brief,  formal  statement  which  attempts 
to  distinguish  it  by  length  alone  can  comprehend  the  Essay,  be- 
cause it  is  a  form  of  writing  so  inclusive  and  expansive  that  it  has 
come  to  identify  as  examples  of  its  kind  such  diverse  expressions 
in  literature  as  the  letter,  the  dialogue,  the  character  sketch, 


6  Introduction. 

and  many  purely  expository  and  critical  writings. !  These  formal 
definitions  of  the  term  have  added  another  difficulty  to  the  treat- 
ment of  this  subject  for  they  are  responsible  for  the  modern  tend- 
ency to  use  the  word  essay  in  denoting  the  sermon,  political 
tract,  scientific  exposition  or  extended  book  review;  whereas,  the 
Essay,  if  it  be  true  to  its  type,  is  quite  distinct  from  any  of  these. 
What,  then,  is  the  recognizable  essay-element  which  will  enable 
us  to  distinguish  the  Essay  from  all  other  closely  aUied  prose 
forms? 

Bacon's  use  Lord  Bacou,  the  first  Englishman  to  avow  himself  a 
of  the  term,  ^^rite^-tsf-^ssays,  states  with  characteristic  directness 
many  of  the  essentials  of  the  Essay,  and  especially  those  which 
serve  to  distinguish  it  from  the  treatise.  In  dedicating  his 
volume  to  Prince  Henry,  ^  he  says — 

"Having  divided  my  life  into  the  contemplative  and  active 
part,  I  am  desirous  to  give  his  Majesty  and  your  Highness  of  the 
fruits  of  both,  simple  though  they  be.  To  write  just  treatises, 
requireth  leisure  in  the  writer  and  leisure  in  the  reader.  .  .  . 
which  is  the  cause  that  hath  made  me  choose  to  write  certain 
brief  notes,  set  down  rather  significantly  than  curiously,  which 
^S  I  have  called  Essays.     The  word  is  late  but  the  thing  is  ancient." 

We  notice  that  the  Essay  was,  to  Bacon,  the  result  of  contem 
plation;  that  it  consisted  of  brief  notes  requiring  less  time  in  the 
writing  and  in  the  reading  than  the  treatise,  from  which  it  also 
differed  in  that  but  little  care  was  given  to  the  form  so  long  as  the 
contents  proved  suggestive,  thus  "set  down  significantly  rather 
than  curiously." 
sifT      Derivation  A  study  of  the  genesis  of  the  Essay  reveals  the  truth 

of  the  word,  of  Bacou's  Statement  that  "the  word  is  new  but  the 
thing  is  ancient."  Bacon  borrowed  the  word  from  the  French. 
(In  1850  Montaigne  had  given  that  name  to  his  own  quaint  "well- 
meaning  BooKe,"  and  both  Bacon  and  Montaigne  applied  the 
word  in  its  exact  sense.  It  is  derived  from  the  Latin  exigere,^ 
meaning  to  test  very  exactly,  to  apply  to  a  standard  weight  or 
measure;  hence  the  Latin  word  exagium  meant  a  weighing  or  a 
standard  weight,  and  from  it  came  the  Italian  saggio,  a  proof, 
trial  or  sample,  the  French  essai,  a  trial,  and  the  English  forms 


(4) 


1  Fourth  Edition.  The  Essaies  of  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  Knight,  the  King's 
Solicitor  General.     Imprinted  at  London  by  John  Beale,  1612. 

2  For  a  comparison  of  the  precedence  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  origin  of  the 
word  see  an  article  by  J.  P.  Postgate  entitled  "The  Ultimate  Derivation  of 
Essay"  in  the  American  Journal  of  Philology.    Vol.  VI.     1885. 


Introduction.  7 

''assay"  and ''essay."  '  An  assai/ of  any  substance  was  an  attempt 
to  weigh  it,  measure  it,  and  determine  its  character  and  value  J 
This  was  exactly  the  process  to  which  Bacon  submitted  the  sub- 
jects of  his  meditations,  and  he  was,  perhaps,  rather  more  con- 
sistent in  his  appHcation  of  the  word  essay  than  his  model, 
Montaigne,  who  had  a  prediliction  for  getting  away  from  his 
subject,  though  in  doing  so  he  exhibited  certain  mood  qualities 
to  which  I  shall  presently  refer  as  proving  him  to  be  the  more 
ideal  Essayist. 
The  origin  of        ^^   much   for   the   word    "Essay."     But   whence 

^  the  Essay  in  came  the  "thing"  which  Bacon  deemed  ancient? 
oral  discourscppj^g  Ess^y  is,  in  Origin,  the  utterance  of  a  thought 
suggested  by  some  experience  or  observation.'  Since  the  begin- 
ning, man  has  employed  his  leisure  moments  in  contemplating 
the  world  and  his  fellow-men  and  attempting  to  interpret  life, 
and,  having  been  endowed  with  a  communicative  nature,  he  has 
delighted  to  give  utterance  to  his  personal  views  on  all  subjects 
that  came  within  his  comprehension^  Obviously  the  Essay  was 
at  first^brief  spoken  discourse,  with  which  it  has  remained  closely 
allied,  as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  some  of  the  best  of  our  mod- 
ern essays  were  originally  delivered  from  the  lecture  platform. 
Even  as  civiUzation  advanced,  the  oral  utterance  continued  for 
some  time  to  be  paramount  in  expressing  and  preserving  the  wis- 
dom of  the  ancients.  The  thoughts  of  Socrates  were  made  known 
in  his  discourses  and,  as  such,  are  available  to  us  in  the  memora- 
bilia of  the  men  who  listened  to  him.  Aristotle  taught  by  means 
of  the  spoken  word,  and  Plato  furnished  the  models  of  the  dia- 
logue essay.  The  wisdom-literature  of  the  Bible  and  Apocrypha 
presents  many  groups  of  wise  meditations,  presumably  deUvered 
orally  and  then  written  down,  which,  if  detached  from  the  con- 
text according  to  their  theme,  and  given  an  appropriate  title, 
become  closely  allied  to  the  essay  both  in  spirit  and  method.^ 
/The  first  The  Written  essay,  when  it  made  its  first  appearance, 

'  written  essays,  j^^d  no  identity  of  its  own,  but  occurred  as  .a  paren- 
thetical reflection  made  by  some  narrator  or  historian.  At 
length  the  ancient  writers  gave  more  definite  expression  to  their 
contemplative  moods,  and  thus  we  are  able  to  distinguish  oc- 

^  The  Ecclesiasticus,  or  Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach,  is  rich  in  ex- 
amples of  the  essay  form.  Cf.  The  Literary  Study  of  the  Bihle.  By  R.  G. 
Moulton,  London.    1896. 


y. 


8  Introduction. 

casional  model  essays  interspersed  in  the  works  of  both  Greek 
and  Latin  authors. 

Greek  The  Greeks  enjoyed  too  little  leisure  from  wars  and 

Essayists.  disseusious  to  foster  many  men  of  purely  contempla- 
tive mood,  and  accordingly  we  look  to  them  for  the  less  subjective 
arts  of  poetry,  philosophy  and  oratory;  yet  Greece  produced 
Plutarch,  who  in  his  Morals  and  Symposaics  added  the  note  of 
famiUarity  and  gave  to  posterity  certain  ideal  essay  utterances 
\  which  made  him  the  model  of  Montaigne  and  the  best  of  Mon- 
taigne's followers.  Xenophon  also,  while  enjoying  the  leisure 
of  exile,  interspersed  his  works  with  many  short  reflections  which 
are  model  essays  of  their  kind. 

Latin  |   Roman  life,  in  the  early  empire  was  more  secure 

Essayists.  ihsLii  that  of  Greece,  and  as  a  result  we  distinguish  in 
its  literature  a  form  of  writing  more  nearly  approaching  the  mod- 
ern essay.  Cicero,  in  such  works  as  De  Amidtia,  De  Offidis 
and  De  Natura  Deorum,  retained  the  oratorical  quality,  but  be- 
queathed to  us  a  series  of  perfectly  constructed  and  methodical 
writings — the  prototypes  of  the  more  elaborate  and  formal  of 
our  modern  essays.  Marcus  Aurelius  in  his  Meditations,  Seneca 
in  his  Morals  and  Maxims,  and  Epictetus  in  his  Manual 
and  Fragments  suggest  the  essay  type.  But  of  all  the  Romans 
it  is  Aulus  Gellius  in  his  Attic  Nights  who  best  exemplifies 
the  true  essay  spirit  in  writing  down  his  personal  observations 
and  occasional  speculations.  Some  extracts  from  his  Preface 
are  well  worth  quoting  in  this  connection.  He  says  of  his  Attic 
Nights — 

"More  pleasing  works  than  the  present  may  certainly  be  found; 
but  my  object  in  writing  this,  was  to  provide  my  children  as 
well  as  myself  with  that  kind  of  amusement,  in  which  they  might 
properly  relax  and  indulge  themselves,  at  the  intervals  from  more 
important  business.  ...  I  have  most  assiduously  employed, 
and  even  wearied  myself  in  all  those  intervals  I  could  steal  from 
business,  in  turning  over  and  cursorily  reading  a  great  number 
of  books.  But  I  have  selected  from  them  not  many  things,  and 
indeed  only  such  as  might  lead  lively  and  ingenious  minds  by  a 
short  and  simple  process,  to  the  desire  of  liberal  science,  and  the 
study  of  useful  arts,  or  which  might  rescue  men  busied  with 
other  occupations,  from  a  mean  and  disgraceful  ignorance  of 
things  as  well  as  words.  ...  Of  these  therefore,  if  any  such 
there  be,  who  at  their  leisure  may  have  some  amusement  in 
perusing  these  lucubrations,  I  would  entreat,  that  if  they  shall 
find  what  they  long  since  knew,  they  would  not  despise  it  as  being 


Introduction.  9 

trite  or  very  common;  for  what  is  there  in  literature  so  abstruse, 
but  that  many  men  know  it?  It  is  recommendation  enough, 
that  these  have  neither  been  prated  over  again  and  again  in 
schools,  nor  thumbed  in  commentaries.  Should  they  meet, 
perchance,  with  anything  that  is  new  and  original,  I  think  it  just 
that  they  should  weigh  without  any  spirit  of  cavil,  whether  these 
few  slight  lessons  are  contemptible  as  to  their  power  of  exciting 
literary  application,  or  languid  in  affording  ingenious  amusement, 
or  whether  they  are  not  rather  of  that  nature  and  description 
by  which  the  natural  talents  may  be  improved  and  strengthened, 
the  memory  become  more  prompt,  the  faculty  of  reason  more 
acute,  the  speech  more  correct,  in  hours  of  relaxation  more  de- 
lightful, and  in  exercise  more  liberal.  As  for  those  parts  which  / 
may  seem  not  sufficiently  perspicuous,  or  too  incomplete  and  ! 
scanty,  /  heg  leave  to  have  them  considered  as  written  not  so  much  to  1 
instruct  as  to  suggest.^'  ^  * 

It  is  striking  to  find,  among  the  ancient  writers,  the  expression 
of  an  intention  and  method  so  marvellously  akin  to  that  of  the 
more  modern  essayists,  for  thus  Bacon  and  his  contemporaries 
might  have  expressed  their  purpose.  A  perusal  of  his  Attic 
Nights  reveals  how  well  Aulus  Gellius  made  his  writings  the 
fulfillment  of  his  Preface. 

Montaigne,  ^  h&Ye  briefly  sketched  the  classical  source  from 

the  first  mod-  which  the  cssay  was  derived. '  JVe  have  seen  that  it 
em  ssayist.  Qj-jginated  in  meditations,  usually  brief,  upon  some 
theme  suggested  by  observation  or  experience,  in  little  groups  of 
wise  sayings  tersely  expressed  but  suggesting  much,  and  that 
it  rarely  made  pretence  to  completeness  of  treatment  or  consis- 
tency of  form.  The  history  of  the  Essay  as  a  deliberately  separate 
and  recognizable  expression  in  literature  begins  with  Montaigne. 
Of  a  contemplative  habit  of  mind  and  influenced  no  doubt  by 
the  classical  writers  whom  we  have  noted,  Montaigne  became  so 
completely  absorbed  in  the  essay  mood  that,  in  giving  it  expres- 
sion, he  expanded  those  essay  elements  which  he  had  found  in 
his  beloved  ancients  into  a  distinctive  form  of  writing  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  Essay.  Then,  being  by  nature  frankly  genial 
and  outspoken,  he  added  the  one  inimitable_fis§ay  element,  viz., 
the-personal  note.  His  address  to  the  reader  soun3s  the  keynote 
of  his  book.  2 

1  The  Attic  Nights  of  Aulus  Gellius;  Translated  into  English  by  the  Revd. 
W.  BeUoe,  London.     1796. 

2  The  Essays  of  Michael  Lord  of  Montaigne.  Translated  by  John  Florio. 
Edited  with  an  Introduction  and  a  Glossary  by  Henry  Morley,  London.     1893. 


10  Introduction. 

''Reader,  loe  here  a  well-meaning  Booke.  It  doth  at  the  first 
entrance  forewarne  thee,  that  in  contriving  the  same,  I  have 
proposed  unto  myselfe  no  other  than  a  familiar  and  private 
end.  .  .  .  Had  my  intention  beene  to  forest al  and  purchase 
the  world's  opinion  and  favour,  I  would  surely  have  adorned  my- 
selfe more  quaintly,  or  kept  a  more  grave  and  solemne  march. 
I  desire  therein  to  be  delineated  in  mine  owne  genuine,  simple 
and  ordinarie  fashion,  without  contention,  art  or  study;  for  it 
is  my  selfe  I  pourtray.  My  imperfections  shall  therein  be  read 
to  the  life,  and  my  naturall  forme  discerned,  so  farre-forth  as 
publike  reverence  hath  permitted  me.  For  if  my  fortune  had 
been  to  have  lived  among  those  nations,  which  yet  are  said  to 
live  under  the  sweet  liberty  of  nature's  first  and  uncorrupted 
lawes,  I  assure  thee,  I  would  most  willingly  have  pourt rayed  my 
selfe  fully  and  naked.  Thus  gentle  reader  my  selfe  am  the 
ground worke  of  my  booke." 

We  see  that  Montaigne's  chief  subject  was  to  be 

^s^yrf^M-   liinaself;  that  he  willingly  abandoned  the  ''more  grave 

pressionof      and   solemne   march"    aiming,   not   to   instruct   his 

^rs°oMUty.      readers  nor  to  ornament  literature,  but  just  to  reveal 

his  own  personality  and  give  vent  to  his  own  talkative 

-inclinations.  Bacon  imitates  him  in  that  both  take  "high- 
sounding  moral  themes  "  for  their  essay  subjects,  but  unlike  Bacon, 
Montaigne  does  not  confine  himself  to  the  thought  which  pur- 
ports to  be  the  subject  of  his  essay.  We  read  his  essay  on  Friend- 
ship, and  finishing  it,  find  he  has  added  but  little  to  our  knowledge 
of  friendship  in  the  abstract,  except  as  he  affords  us  an  inspiring 
insight  into  the  character  and  friendliness  of  Michael  De  Mon- 
taigne. Thus,  in  all  his  attempts,  it  is  the  vagaries  of  his  own 
temperament  which  we  follow  as  he  assumes  successively  the 

/  character  of  observer,  scholar  and  philosopher,  introducing  con- 
crete experiences,  and  narrative  and  descriptive  elements.  All 
this  has  its  effect  on  the  form  of  his  essays.     There  is  no  attempt 

\  at  completeness;  the  tone  is  often  rambling;  there  is  no  serious- 
ness of  purpose,  and  no  attempt  at  an  "orderly  or  exhaustive" 
treatment;  the  reader  makes  no  voluntary  effort,  his  attention 
being  unconsciously  aroused  and  held.  Many  of  these  charac- 
teristics which  mark  the  works  of  Montaigne  remain  distinctive 
of  the  true  essay  style  in  the  writers  who  followed  him. 

tlFis  this  personal  note  which  becomes  the  final  test  for  distin- 
guishing the  essay  from  its  allied  forms.  Every  true  essay  is 
a  revelation  of  personality.  Bacon's  essays  are  called  imper- 
sonal and  it  is  true  that  they  do  not  deliberately  reveal  the 
outward  characteristics  of  their  author,  yet  by  their  very  lack 


Introduction.  11 

Expression  of   ^f  personal  description  and  by  their  constant  appeal  ^-^ 
distinguishes    to  the  intellect  rather  than  to  the  emotions  they  are    , 
the  Essay  from  g^  revelation  of  Bacon's  own  individuality.     Person-   , 

other  prose  .  »     i 

forms.  ality  may  be  as  completely  expressed  in  terms    of 

habits  of  thought  as  in  a  citation  of  biographical  facts. 
Thus  the  treatise  may  present  a  subject  ever  so  thoroughly  and 
yet  be  undeserving  of  the  name  of  essay  unless  it  reveals  also  the  (/ 
character  or  mentality  of  its  author. 

Various  forms  Montaigne  invented  the  Essay  as  a  paramount 
assumed  by  means  of  taking  us  into  his  confidence.  Since  its 
the  Essay.  invention  by  him,  this  alluring  literary  expression  has 
been  the  experiment  of  numerous  writers  in  many  lands,  and  as 
was  inevitable  with  a  thing  so  elastic  as  to  treatment  and  so  much 
the  product  of  individual  temperament,  the  essay  has  assumed  a 
variety  of  forms.  Some  men  have  made  it  a  vehicle  for  exposi-  ^ 
tion,  serious  reflection  or  careful  criticism,  and  as  a  result  the 
Didactic  and  Critical  Essays  have  evolved.  These  are  such  a 
convenient  expression  for  men  with  a  scientific  theory  to  expound, 
a  point  to  prove,  or  a  judgment  to  support,  that  in  the  hands  of 
many,  the  essay  has  lost  resemblance  to  its  original  type  and  be-  y 
come  confusingly  akin  to  the  more  lengthy  and  profound  prose 
forms.  Other  writers,  however,  like  Montaigne,  have  been 
content  just  to  chat  awhile,  and  to  them  we  owe  the  perpetuation 
of  the  Personal  Essay,  with  its  delightful  by-products,  the  biog- 
raphy, character  sketch,  dialogue  and  letter  forms.  These 
were  the  real  essayists,  the  true  followers  of  Montaigne,  pre- 
serving his  spirit  and  method  but  eliminating  his  faults  and 
improving  upon  their  model,  as  Enghsh  prose  style  gradually 
ceased  to  be  an  accident  and  be^j^e.an  art. 


THE  ESSAY  IN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE. 

CHAPTER   I. 

THE  COLONIAL  PERIOD. 

Brief  survey  American  literature  is  said  to  have  begun  in  1607 
of  the  Essay  with  the  arrival  of  the  first  English  colonists  in  this 
in  England,  ^ountry.  It  might  be  more  exact  to  say  that  in  1607 
some  English  literature  began  to  be  written  in  America,  for  not 
until  the  colonists  had  won  their  independence  and  proved  them- 
selves capable  of  maintaining  it  permanently,  did  a  real  American 
era  and  literature  begin.  The  first  settlers  were  EngUshmen, 
but  they  were  immigrant  EngHshmen  and  from  the  beginning 
they  showed  the  effects  of  having  been  transplanted.  The  Ameri- 
can atmosphere  at  once  began  to  give  its  own  tone  to  their  life 
and  thoughts,  and  naturally  the  Uterature  which  embodied  both 
we  like  to  regard  as  American.  Nevertheless  England  can  justly 
claim  it  as  hers,  for  did  not  these  wandering  children  speak  the 
language  of  the  mother-country  and  claim  also  their  inheritance 
in  the  thought  and  literature  of  the  EngHsh  generations  which 
had  preceded  them?  So,  in  the  literature  produced  in  America 
during  the  colonial  period,  we  may  discover  characteristics 
which  were  subsequently  to  be  regarded  as  American  and  at  the 
same  time  note  those  English  traits  in  which  it  closely  resembles 
its  parent  literature.  Even  a  limited  field  like  the  essay  presents 
these  distinctions  and  resemblances.  It  is  interesting  to  observe 
that  some  of  the  colonial  predecessors  of  the  American  essayists, 
men  whose  works  show  only  here  and  there  the  essay  quality, 
are  more  typically  American  than  the  avowed  essayists  who  came 
later,  the  works  of  whom  are  obviously  imitated  from  EngHsh 
patterns.  Bacon  had  pubUshed  the  first  edition  of  his  essays  in 
1597,  just  ten  years  before  the  first  English  colonists  came  to 
America  and  the  Seventeenth  Century  in  England  was  proUfic 
in  the  number  of  its  essayists.^    But  the  early  colonists,  removed 

1  Contemporary  with  Bacon  were  the  following  essayists:  Sir  William  Com- 
wallis,  Essays,  Part  1. 1600;  Part  II.  1601.    Robert  Johnson,  Essaies,  or  Rather 

Imperfect  Offers,  1601,  and  Essaies,  1607.    Johnson,  Essays  Expressed 

in  Sundry  Exquisite  Fancies,  1638.  John  Stevens,  Satyrical  Essays,  Charac- 
ters and  others,  1615.    Henry  Harflete,  A  Bouquet  of  Essayes,  1653. 


14  Graduate  School  Publications. 

as  they  were  from  the  world's  literary  centres  and  activities, 
were  probably  less  under  the  influence  of  these  than  of  the  writers 
who  had  preceded  them.  We  have  noted  the  classical  authors 
upon  whose  works  Bacon  based  his  statement  that  only  the  name 
"essay"  was  new,  and  in  English  literature  he  might  have  dis- 
covered unnamed  essays  dispersed  among  the  writings  that  had 
preceded  his  own.  Even  literature  as  early  as  that  of  the  Four- 
teenth Century  presents  examples  of  the  essay  style.  There 
are  certain  passages  in  the  Travels  of  Sir  John  Mandeville 
which  read  like  essays.  ^Chaucer,  in  the  Tale  of  Melebius 
bequeathed  to  us  a  genuine  essay  On  Getting  and  Using  Riches. 
Caxton's  Preface  to  the  Book  of  Eneydos  is  quaintly  sug- 
gestive of  Montaigne.  Lord  Burleigh  addressed  an  admirable 
essay  to  his  son  On  the  Well  Ordering  of  a  Man^s  Life,  and  the 
writings  of  Sir  Thomas  Elyot,  Roger  Ascham,  John  Lyly  and 
others  present  essay  elements.  But  it  is  such  works  as  Latimer's 
Sermons.  y^Hctoker'f!,  Ecclesiastical  Polity,  and  John  Foxe's 
Book  of  Martyrs  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,  and  in  the  Seven- 
teenth, Burton's  Anatomy  of  Melancholy,  Feltham's  Resolves, 
John  Donne's  Essays  on  Divinity  and  Jeremy  Taylor's 
Homilies  which  made  a  special  appeal  to  the  Puritans  in 
America  and  left  an  influence  upon  their  thoughts  and  writings. 
„  ,   . ,     ,        It  is  to  New  England  that  we  look  for  colonial 

Colonial  prede-  «.  i 

cessorsofthe  literature  of  such  a  nature  as  to  embody  anything 
American  jjj^g  ^j^g  Essay,  f or  though  Virginia  in  its  first  decades 
had  produced  some  literature,  it  was  chiefly  historical 
and  biographical,  and  during  the  balance  of  the  period  New  Eng- 
land was  the  literary  centre  of  the  New  World.  Puritan  traits 
are  manifest  in  its  literary  output,  which  shows  in  a  marked  de- 
gree on  the  thought  and  spirit,  if  not  on  the  manner  and  expres- 
sion, the  influence  of  such  English  essayists  as  those  I  have 
mentioned.  This  New  England  literature  is,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, of  a  religious  nature,  written  by  clergymen  who  deliberately 
turned  away  from  the  lighter  and  richer  types  of  writing  in  their 
mother-country. 

In  connection  with  this  we  may  note  that  our  earli- 
the  word  est  writcrs  do  not  seem  to  have  adopted  Bacon's  use 
"Essay"  in  ^f  ^\^q  word  '^Essay"  as  appUed  to  the  dehghtful  sort 
*  of  literature  to  which  he  gave  that  name.  By  them 
the  word  "Essay"  was  used  literally  and  merely  meant  an  attempt. 
The  result  is  confusing  and  rather  disappointing  to  the  modern 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  15 

seeker  after  colonial  essays.  Thus  David  Zeisberger  wrote  an 
"Essay  of  a  Delaware  Indian  and  English  Spelling  Book"  apply- 
ing the  term  "Essay"  to  his  attempt  to  compile  a  mere  vocabulary, 
and  later  a  grammar  which  he  produced  is  also  termed  ''Essay." 
John  Eliot  likewise  wrote  an  Indian  grammar  and  called  it  an 
"Essay."  Other  writers  appUed  the  word  to  various  attempts  in 
mathematics  and  science,  as  did  Lewis  Evans  when  he  called  his 
technical  geographical  and  mechanical  treatises  by  the  name  of 
"Essays."  ^  The  term  became  especially  convenient  for  those  aus- 
tere Puritan  preachers  whose  dreadful,  awe-inspiring  sermons  and 
ponderous  addresses,  as  soon  as  they  found  their  way  to  the  print- 
ing press  were  labelled  essays,  and  as  such  are  preserved  to  dis- 
appoint us. 

One  of  the  earliest  and  most  remarkable  publications  to  assume 
the  name  "Essay"  was  written  by  Increase  Mather  and  published 
in  1683.  Its  very  lengthy  title  at  once  describes  and  classifies 
the  book.  "An  Essay  for  the  Recording  of  Illustrious  Providences 
wherein  an  Account  is  given  of  Many  Remarkable  and  very  memora- 
ble Events  which  have  hapned  this  last  age  especially  in  New 
England."  This  work  could  not  be  classified  as  an  essay  under 
any  possible  definition  of  the  term.  Samuel  Mather  also  applied 
the  term  confusingly  to  certain  long  discourses  published  in 
pamphlet  form.^     It  is  to  his  father.  Cotton  Mather,  that  we 

must  look  for  works  which  are  essays  in  nature  as 
Cotton  well  as  in  name,  and  in  these  it  is  easy  to  trace  the 

..Ess^ys^tQ  influence  of  Foxe,  Fuller  and  Burton.  There  are 
Do  Good"  the  about  four  hundred  of  his  actual  publications  and 
S  Wric'^°''  many  of  them  bear  the  name  of  "Essays."  Of  them 
Essays.  all,  howcver,  there  is  one  little  book  of  real  essays.     I 

refer  to  the  work  commonly  called  Essays  to  do 
Good.^  After  reading  the  contents,  we  find  it  possible  to  apply 
the  word  essay  to  them  either,  as  the  authoi*  probably  did,  to 
signify  "Attempts  to  do  Good,"  or  in  our  own  modern  acceptance 
of  the  term,  considering  the  volume  a  series  of  essays  on  the  sub- 

^Geographical,  Historical,  Political,  Philosophical,  and  Mechanical  Essays 
by  Lewis  Evans,  Philadelphia.    1756. 

^Irenicum:  or  an  essay  for  Union,  by  Samuel  Mather,  London,  1680, 
and  others  of  a  similar  nature. 

8  The  title  of  the  first  edition  reads — "Bonifacius.  An  Essay  upon  the 
Good,  that  is  to  be  devised  and  designed,  By  Those  who  desire  to  answer  the 
great  end  of  life,  and  to  do  good  while  they  live."     Boston.     1710. 


16  Graduate  School  Publications. 

ject  of  doing  good  in  an  evil  world.  These  essays  possess  the 
then  rare  quality  of  brevity;  each  one  is  complete  in  itself,  and 
each  is  suggestive  rather  than  exhaustive;  so  that  in  method  and 
spirit  this  volume  is  unique,  appearing  as  it  did  in  an  age  which 
:  used  the  term  so  indiscriminately;  and  being  the  first  collection 
of  writings  to  which  we  can  apply  the  word  essay  in  the  same  way 
that  we  use  it  in  connection  with  the  works  of  Bacon  and  his 
successors.  The  following  essay  is  typical  of  the  style  and  spirit 
which  pervades  them  all.  It  is  entitled — "Opportunities  to  do 
Good." 

*'Our  opportunities  to  do  good  are  our  talents.  An  awful 
account  must  be  rendered  to  the  great  God,  concerning  the  use. 
of  the  talents  with  which  he  has  entrusted  us  in  these  precious 
opportunities.  Frequently  we  do  not  use  our  opportunities, 
because  we  do  not  consider  them;  they  lay  unnoticed  and  unim- 
proved. We  read  of  a  thing  which  we  deride  as  often  as  we  behold 
it.  'There  is  that  maketh  himself  poor,  and  yet  had  great 
riches.'  This  is  too  frequently  exemplified  in  our  opportunities 
to  do  good,  which  are  some  of  our  most  valuable  riches.  Many 
a  man  seems  to  reckon  himself  destitute  of  these  talents,  as  if 
there  was  nothing  for  him  to  do;  he  pretends  that  he  is  not  in 
condition  to  do  good.  Alas!  poor  man,  what  can  he  do?  My 
friend,  think  again;  think  frequently;  enquire  what  your  oppor- 
tunities are;  you  will  certainly  find  them  to  be  more  than  you  are 
aware  of.  '  Plain  men  dwelling  in  tents, '  persons  of  a  very  ordi- 
nary rank  in  Ufe,  may,  by  their  eminent  piety,  prove  persons 
of  extraordinary  usefulness.  A  poor  John  Urich  may  make  a 
Groteus  the  better  for  him.  I  have  read  of  a  pious  weaver,  of 
whom  some  eminent  persons  would  say,  'Christ  walked,  as  it 
were,  alive  on  the  earth  in  that  man.'  A  mean  mechanic — 
who  can  tell  what  an  engine  of  God  he  may  become,  if  humbly 
and  wisely  applied  to  it? 

This  then  is  the  next  proposal.  Without  abridging  yourselves 
of  your  occasional  thoughts  on  the  question  '  What  good  may  I  do 
today? '  Fix  a  time,  now  and  then  for  more  deliberate  thoughts 
upon  it.  Cannot  you  find  time,  (say  once  a  week,  and  how 
suitably  on  the  Lord's  day,)  to  take  this  question  into  considera- 
tion: 

What  is  there  that  I  may  do  for  the  service  of  the  Glorious  Lord, 
and  for  the  Welfare  of  those  for  whom  I  ought  to  be  concerned? 

Having  implored  the  direction  of  God,  Hhe  Father  of  lights,' 
consider  the  matter  in  the  various  aspects  of  it.  Consider  it  till 
you  have  resolved  on  something.  Write  down  your  resolutions. 
Examine  what  precept  and  what  promise  you  can  find  in  the  word 
of  God  to  countenance  your  resolutions.  Review  those  memorials 
at  proper  seasons,  and  see  how  far  you  have  proceeded  in  the 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  17 

execution  of  them.  The  advantage  of  these  preserved  and  re- 
vived memorials,  no  rhetoric  will  be  sufficient  to  commend,  no 
arithmetic  to  calculate.  There  are  some  animals  of  which  we 
say  'they  know  not  their  own  strength.'  Christians,  why 
should  you  be  like  them?" 

Cotton  Mather,  then,  may  be  said  to  have  produced  the  first 
American  volume  of  essays,  genuine  in  spirit  and  method,  and 
limited  only  by  the  restrictions  of  their  subject  matter.  This 
work  remains  the  only  one  of  its  kind  to  be  published  in  America 
during  the  Seventeenth  Century,  and  even  in  the  Eighteenth 
we  must  search  the  newspapers  and  periodicals  for  detached  es- 
says and  find  few  volumes  devoted  exclusively  to  genuine  essays 
as  is  this  little  one  of  Cotton  Mather's. 

There   were,  however,  excellent  essays  interspersed 
Essays  that      among  the  varied  writings  of  other  colonial  writers. 

appeared 

interspersed  The  American  volume  most  popular  in  England  in 
among  other     j^g  q,^^^  ^g^y  ^^g   rpj^^  Simple  CohhUr  of  Aqawam, 

prose  works.  v         a  7 

written  by  Nathaniel  Ward,  and  published  in  England 
in  1645,  where  it  was  at  once  in  great  demand.  This  work  was  a 
prose  satire,  and  the  Cobbler's  opinions  of  the  foibles  and  weak- 
nesses of  his  day  both  in  England  and  America,  if  detached  and 
classified  under  appropriate  headings,  would  read  well  as  essays 
and  seem  to  suggest  the  method  of  the  Tatler  and  Spectator  which 
came  later.  This  book  is  interesting  also  as  having  been  writ- 
ten in  a  manner  truly  American  in  its  unaffected  freedom  and 
fearlessness. 

The  Essays  From  the  rugged  strength  of  Cotton  Mather  and  the 

of  John  bold  satire  of  the  ''  Cobbler  of  Agawam,"  it  is  pleasant 

wooiman.  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^  Writings  of  John  Woolman,  the  kindly 
Quaker  whose  works  in  after  years  became  dear  to  such  kindred 
spirits  of  his  own  as  Charles  Lamb,  William  Ellery  Channing  and 
John  Greenleaf  Whittier.  Woolman  left  several  ethical  and  re- 
ligious essays  but  it  is  in  his  Autobiography  that  we  discover  an 
admirable  simplicity  and  ease,  a  leisurely  rambling  from  subject 
to  subject,  and  the  personal  note  so  characteristic  of  the  best- 
loved  essayists.  The  journal  contains  meditations  on  many 
topics.  There  are,  ''Considerations  on  Trading,  and  on  the  use 
of  Spirituous  Liquors  and  Costly  Apparel";  "Thoughts  on  the 
neglect  of  a  religious  care  in  the  education  of  Negroes";  "Con- 
templations on  the  nature  of  true  wisdom,  occasioned  by  hearing 
of  the  cruelty  of  the  Indians  to  their  captives";  "On  Labour"; 


/ 


18  Graduate  School  Publications. 

"On  Schools";  "On  the  right  use  of  the  Lord's  outward  gifts," 
etc.  I  quote  a  short  essay  which  breaks  the  narrative  of  his 
journal  to  embody  the  thoughts  which  came  to  him  on  a  night 
spent  alone  in  the  open. 

"Thus  lying  in  the  wilderness,  and  looking  at  the  stars,  I  was 
led  to  contemplate  on  the  condition  of  our  first  parents,  when 
they  were  sent  forth  from  the  garden;  but  the  Almighty,  though 
they  had  been  disobedient,  continued  to  be  a  father  to  them,  and 
showed  them  what  tended  to  their  felicity  as  intelligent  creatures, 
and  was  acceptable  to  him.  To  provide  things  relative  to  our 
outward  living  in  the  way  of  true  wisdom  is  good,  and  the  gift 
of  improving  in  things  useful,  is  a  good  gift,  and  comes  from  the 
Father  of  Lights.  Many  have  had  this  gift,  and  from  age  to  age, 
there  have  been  improvements  of  this  kind  made  in  the  world; 
but  some,  not  keeping  to  the  pure  gift,  have,  in  the  creaturely 
cunning  and  self-exaltation,  sought  out  many  inventions,  which 
inventions  of  men,  as  distinct  from  that  uprightness  in  which 
man  was  created,  as  the  first  motion  to  them  was  evil,  so  the  effects 
have  been  and  are  evil.  That,  at  this  day,  it  is  as  necessary  for 
us  constantly  to  attend  on  the  heavenly  gifts,  to  be  qualified  to 
use  rightly  the  good  things  in  this  life  amidst  our  great  improve- 
ments, as  it  was  for  our  first  parents,  when  they  were  without 
any  improvements,  without  any  friend  or  father,  but  God  only.'' 

The  Periodical  From  thcsc  writcrs,  we  turn  to  a  consideration  of 
Essay  in  the  Periodical  Essay  which  came  into  existence  in 
England.  England  during  our  colonial  era.  This  seems  to  have 
had  no  influence  upon  our  earliest  writers  and  so  I  have  purposely 
postponed  considering  it  until  I  was  ready  to  trace  its  influence 
upon  our  periodical  literature. 

When  the  Comedy  of  Manners  came  to  be  neglected  upon  the 
Enghsh  stage,  there  was  kindled  a  desire  for  some  sort  of  lit- 
erary expression  to  take  its  place  in  holding  up  a  mirror  for  re- 
flecting the  foibles  and  peculiarities  of  the  times.  In  1703 
Defoe  had  founded  The  Review,  and  this  contained  a  column 
called  the  "Scandal  Club,"  through  which  medium  he  exposed 
the  social  follies  of  his  times,  and  from  it  Steele  probably  con- 
ceived the  central  idea  of  his  Tatler  which  appeared  in  1709, 
and  of  the  famous  Spectator  and  Guardian  which  followed.  In 
all  of  these,  the  writings  of  Addison,  and  other  friendly  wits  con- 
tributed an  influence  which  made  the  fame  and  worth  of  these 
publications  permanent  in  the  history  of  English  literature. 
Their  medium  of  expression  was  the  Essay,  but  it  was  a  form  of 
essay  which  they  had  the  honor  of  inventing  for  themselves. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  19 

Departing  from  the  classical  and  purely  intellectual  essays  of 
Bacon,  they  seized  upon  the  personal  and  familiar  elements  to 
be  found  in  Montaigne  and  made  their  essays  a  direct  means  of 
communication  between  themselves  and  a  public  which  they  de- 
lighted to  ridicule,  admonish  and  advise  through  the  direct  and 
conversational  medium  of  their  periodical  essays.  Influenced 
perhaps  by  Theaphra^tus  and  by  Sir  Thomas  Overbury  whose 
Characters  had  appeared  in  the  preceding  century, ^  and  in 
order  to  render  themselves  indispensable  to  that  same  public 
they  had  the  wisdom  to  conceal  their  purpose  by  assuming  char- 
acters, whose  personality  was  recognizable  enough  to  gain  the 
interest  of  the  reader  and  thus,  to  use  Defoe's  words  ''Wheedle 
men  into  a  knowledge  of  the  world,  who  rather  than  take  more 
pains  would  be  content  with  their  ignorance."  Addison,  by  the 
pure  literary  grace  of  his  expression,  made  the  Spectator  papers 
classical,  and  saved  these  publications  from  the  oblivion  which 
might  easily  have  been  the  fate  of  a  form  of  writing,  which  by  its 
very  nature  had  no  purpose  but  to  leave  an  influence  upon  the 
manners  and  thoughts  of  its  own  period.  Their  scheme  proved  a 
far-reaching  success.  Their  works  were  widely  imitated  in  their 
own  time,  and  after  a  short  period  of  disfavor,  were  renewed  by 
Johnson  in  his  Rambler  and  Idler.  Later  literature  contains  the 
perfect  flower  of  which  these  were  only  the  seed,  for  with  Hazlett, 
Lamb  and  Stevenson  the  Periodical  Essay  had  reached  beyond 
the  restricted  field  of  criticising  contemporary  manners,  and  had 
become  the  ideal  Personal  Essay. 

But  our  investigation  is  of  American  Hterature, 
The  appear-  and  here  too  we  may  discover  the  widespread  influence 
origUai^?^^'  of  the  Spectator  and  kindred  pubhcations.  It  is  not 
borrowed,  in  until  the  colouics  had  broken  away  from  England  and 
^wspapTiand^^Sun  their  true  American  era,  that  we  find  representa- 
magazines.  tivc  cssayists  in  whosc  works  this  influence  is  second- 
ary to  their  own  typical  American  characteristics. 
Colonial  journalism  presents  many  paradoxes.  The  newspapers 
and  periodicals  of  the  period,  if  judged  apart  from  the  times  which 
produced  them,  might  seem  scarcely  worthy  of  consideration  so 

1  Other  Seventeenth  Century  writers  of  "Characters"  were  Joseph  Hall, 
Nicholas  Breton,  Wye  Saltonstall,  Sir  Francis  Wortley,  T.  Ford  and  R.  Fleek- 
noe.  The  Characters  were  typical,  dealing  with  the  external,  accidental 
aspects  of  mankind.  In  the  Essay,  characters  became  individual,  and  their 
essential,  permanent  and  internal  traits  are  set  forth. 


20  Graduate  School  Publications. 

far  as  their  contents  are  concerned,  but  remembering  the  trying 
circumstances  under  which  they  came  into  existence,  and  the 
struggle  that  had  to  be  made  in  order  to  keep  them  ahve,  we 
handle  them  reverently  and  feel  that  they  need  no  apology.  It 
is  true  that  even  a  study  of  the  essays  in  our  earhest  journals 
reveals  a  degeneration  from  the  spontaneous,  fearless  strength 
in  style  which  marked  the  first  colonial  writers  as  American. 
There  are  many  servile  imitators  whose  nerveless  expression 
simulates  the  literary  language  of  the  mother-country.  There 
is  little  writing  of  the  class  known  as  "Belles  Lettres,"  and  such 
as  appears  is  often  weak  and  unworthy.  At  the  same  time  there 
are  flashes  of  originality  and  true  American  spirit;  side  by  side 
with  much  that  is  mediocre  we  find  occasional  rare  gems  of 
thought  and  expression.  By  throwing  the  search-fight  of  history 
upon  these  pages,  and  approaching  them  in  a  spirit  of  regard 
rather  than  of  ridicule,  it  is  possible  to  find  embodied  there  our 
whole  national  story. 

The  Essa  s  ^^^   ^^^^   product   of   American   journafism    was 

ofTheAmeri-  PuhUc  Occurreuces  which  appeared  in  Boston  in  1690. 
M^r^^^^^  The  only  existing  copy  of  this  paper  is  in  the  Colonial 
State  Paper  Office  in  London.  This  was  followed  by 
the  Boston  News  Letter  in  1704,  and  in  1719  was  printed  in  Phila- 
delphia The  American  Weekly  Mercury,  the  first  newspaper  to  be 
continuously  pubUshed  in  the  Middle  Colonies.  The  only  com- 
plete file  of  this  paper  is  to  be  found  in  the  Ridgeway  branch  of 
the  Philadelphia  Library  Company.  This  last  named  pubUca- 
tion  is  worth  noticing  in  detail,  for  it  is  typical  of  all  the  colonial 
newspapers  and  rather  better  than  the  average,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  exhibits  an  interesting  phase  in  the  study  of  our 
Uterary  evolution.  The  Mercury  was  issued  once  a  week  and 
as  announced  in  the  advertisement  which  heralded  its  coming, 
it  was  to  contain  *'an  impartial  account  of  Transactions  in  the 
several  states  of  Europe,  America,  etc.''  For  three  years 
this  paper,  like  others  of  the  period,  persevered  in  its  prudent 
plan  of  publishing  only  news,  market  quotations  and  advertise- 
ments, refraining  from  the  luxury  of  editorial  comment  and  lit- 
erary effort.  Its  earlier  numbers  are  expressive  of  the  narrow 
outlook  of  the  colonists  and  show  how  small  a  margin  of  time 
they  could  devote  to  literary  pursuits.  The  first  attempt  to 
publish  anything  different  was  made  on  February  13,  1722,  and 
it  is  perhaps  significant  that  the  departure  then  took  the  form  of 


/ 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  21 

one  of  the  political  letters  of  Cato,  reprinted  from  an  English 
publication,  and  this  was  followed  by  other  ''Cato"  letters.  In 
January,  1724,  when  news  was  scarce  and  slow  in  reaching  the 
colonies,  some  thoughtful  correspondent  became  sensible  of  the 
excellencies  of  those  English  periodicals  to  which  I  have  referred 
and  we  find  the  following  letter  inserted  in  the  columns  of  the 
Mercury,  which  seems  to  merit  quotation  for  it  is  the  first  evidence 
of  the  influence  that  Addison  and  Steele  were  to  have  in  American 
letters. 

''In  this  scarcity  of  News  it  may  be  acceptable  and  useful  to 
fill  up  the  Mercury  with  some  pieces  of  Morality  or  other  Instruc- 
tive Animadversions  out  of  Books  which  may  not  be  in  every 
Body's  Hands.  The  Spectator  among  others  affords  many  such. 
And  hearing  that  a  Busy  Great  Man  of  the  present  Mode,  having 
turned  his  Thoughts  wholly  to  Politicks,  and  the  good  Fellow- 
ship that  he  finds  in  the  Sun,  is  for  selling  the  7  Volumes  cheap 
it  may  not  be  amiss  to  buy  them  for  that  purpose,  and  to  Retail, 
with  judgement,  such  as  are  proper  and  suitable.  For  a  speci- 
men, I  have  sent  part  of  one,  which  is  mostly  made  up  of  a  quo- 
tation from  the  late  A.  B.  Tillotson,  and  I  suppose,  from  that 
familiar  way  of  expressing  the  good  Sence  and  Judgement  which 
run  through  his  writings."  ^ 

Notice  the  casual  critical  touch  at  the  close  of  the  letter.  It 
is  the  first  hesitating  attempt  at  literary  criticism  which  I  was 
able  to  find  in  the  colonial  newspapers.  This  unknown  corre- 
spondent adds  the  extract  which  he  mentions  as  Tillotson's. 
The  editor  of  the  Mercury  seems  to  have  suddenly  realized  the 
fact  that  such  quotations  would  add  to  the  popularity  of  his 
paper  and  in  the  succeeding  numbers  we  find  many  quotations 
from  contemporary  English  publications,  though  usually  they 
were  prefixed  apologetically  by  the  phrase  "published  in  this 
scarcity  of  news."  In  the  very  next  month  the  editor  takes  it 
upon  himself  to  insert  an  essay  on  "Entertainments"  which  is  an 
excerpt  of  a  treatise  by  Marcus  Varro.  By  1732,  the  minds  of 
the  subscribers  had  been  sufficiently  stimulated  by  these  borrowed 
essays  and  we  begin  to  find  original  essays  contributed  by  various 
readers.  2     Many  of  these  are  unworthy  of  note,  but  there  are 

1  In  the  quotations  of  the  earlier  essays  embodied  in  this  chapter,  I  have 
used  the  speUing,  punctuation  and  capitalization  which  appeared  in  the 
original  editions.  Towards  the  end  of  the  period  we  note  less  inconsistency 
and  idiosyncrasy  in  this  matter. 

2  Benjamin  Franklin  and  Joseph  Breintal  contributed  the  "Busybody" 
papers. 


22  Graduate  School  Publications. 

some  that  seem  worth  preserving  like  the  following  original 
essay  which  appeared  in  the  number  for  December  22,  1737,  and 
which  shows  a  noticeable  improvement  on  the  formless  efforts 
of  many  of  the  Mercury's  correspondents. 

''Mirth  and  Cheerfulness  consistent  with  Rehgion: — 

There  are  in  every  Thing  Extremes,  and  we  are  very  apt  to 
run  into  one  or  the  other  of  them.  Religion  has  suffered  very 
much  by  this  Proneness  to  carry  any  Notion  too  far.  The 
Gloomy  and  Morose  dress  up  Religion  in  the  Habit  of  their  own 
Melancholy  or  Sour  Temper,  which  has  given  Rise  to  Super- 
stitions and  rigid  Doctrines  and  Practises;  the  Gay  and  Sprightly, 
are  as  forward  to  mould  Religion  to  their  own  Genius,  and  to  fancy 
that  they  are  affecting  agreeably  to  the  Intention  of  their  Maker, 
whenever  they  are  indulging  their  Inclination  toward  Mirth  and 
Pleasantry.  The  former  think  it  a  Sin  to  take  any  Pleasure,  and 
the  latter  seem  to  imagine  that  we  came  into  the  World  for 
nothing  else. 

A  Person  indeed,  who  is  conscious  to  himself  of  notorious 
Offences  against  God,  or  of  an  irreligious  Habit  of  Life,  has  no 
Opportunity  for  Cheerfulness,  while  he  ought  to  be  confessing 
his  own  Wickedness  and  Folly,  and  labouring  to  reform  his 
Nature  by  getting  rid  of  old,  stubborn  Habits,  and  introducing 
new  ones. 

A  State  of  Repentance  must  in  the  Nature  of  Things,  be  a  State 
of  Sorrow  and  Uneasiness;  and  the  business  of  Amendment  being 
a  continual  opposition  to  our  Inclinations  and  Dispositions,  it  is 
impossible  we  can  reasonably  be  in  a  Humour  to  be  very  Cheerful 
till  the  Difficulties  are  over,  and  we  have  more  Reason  to  be 
satisfied  with  our  own  conduct,  and  to  think  ourselves  in  the 
Favour  of  God.  But  I  would  now  speak  of  those  who  have  Testi- 
mony of  their  Conscience,  that,  in  the  General  Tenour  of  their 
Lives,  they  honestly  endeavour  to  know  and  to  do  their  Duty. 
And  who  can  have  so  much  Reason  to  be  Merry,  as  one  who  has 
Reason  to  think  that  God  is  his  Friend,  and  that  he  is  entitled 
to  eternal  Happiness?  Is  not  an  uniform  Habit  of  Religion  the 
most  Pleasant  thing  in  Nature?  And  while  we  are  naturally 
and  Rationally  pleased  with  our  conduct,  and  full  of  Joyful 
Expectations,  is  not  this  a  proper  Fund  of  Perpetual  Cheerful- 
ness? 

Besides,  the  very  Inclination  to  Mirth,  is  a  plain  Indication 
that  Providence  intended  that  we  should  be  Merry,  as  Hunger  and 
Thirst  shoe  that  it  is  lawful,  because  natural,  to  eat  and  drink. 
Our  animal  Spirits,  our  SprightHness  of  Constitution,  our  Apt- 
ness for  Wit  and  Pleasantry,  were  not  given  us  by  a  good  and 
bountiful  God,  only  that  we  should  be  at  the  Trouble  and  Un- 
easiness of  denying  ourselves  all  Indulgence  of  them,  but  for  our 
Comfort  in  Life,  to  sweeten  and  enliven  it,  and  render  ourselves 
agreeable  to  one  another.     But  then  our  Mirth   and  Cheerful- 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  23 

ness  like  our  Passions,  are  liable  to  excess,  and  must  be  under  the 
watchful  Restraint  of  Reason.  They  are  apt  to  degenerate  into 
Levity,  and  by  being  too  often,  or  too  long  indulged  at  one  time, 
to  beget  an  inaptnese  for  the  Duties  of  Religion  and  common 
Life,  to  throw  the  Mind  off  its  Guard,  and  to  betray  us  too  fre- 
quently into  Indiscretions,  often  into  Vices.  Our  Mirth,  like  all 
other  Diversions  was  designed  by  way  of  Refreshment,  or  Re- 
laxation of  the  Mind;  by  unbending  it  and  giving  it  Time  to 
recover  and  recruit  itself,  after  it  had  been  a  sufficient  Time  em- 
ployed in  a  serious  way. 

The  whole  in  short  is  this:  Without  Mirth  and  Cheerfulness 
we  should  sink  into  Superstition  and  Dejection; if  not  into  Despair; 
but  our  Mirth  must  not  be  too  frequent,  nor  too  long  at  one  Time, 
for  then  it  would  destroy  the  true  Frame  of  Mind  and  interrupt 
the  proper  Business  of  a  Religious  and  Rational  Creature  in 
this  Life.  The  old  Proverb  is  a  very  significant  one,  'Be  merry 
and  wise.' " 

The  first  The    first  American    magazine   was   The   General 

American  Magazine  and  Historical  Chronicle  for  all  the  British 
Magazines.  Plantations  in  America  published  in  January,  1741,^ 
by  Benjamin  Franklin.  Of  Franklin's  own  contributions  to  our 
essays  I  shall  treat  in  the  next  chapter.  This  magazine,  though 
it  contains  but  few  essays  with  any  degree  of  merit  is  noteworthy 
not  only  because  it  was  the  first  to  be  published  in  America 
and  included  the  prototypes  of  many  forms  of  magazine  writing 
which  are  indispensable  in  the  magazines  of  today,  but  also  as  an 
evidence  of  the  broadening  of  the  field  of  Belles  Lettres  in  the  few 
years  that  had  passed  since  the  beginning  of  American  journalism. 
Here  we  find  "Accounts  of  and  extracts  from  New  Books,  Pam- 
phlets, etc.  published  in  the  Plantations"  and  '' Essays  on  various 
subjects  from  the  American  Newspapers."  There  are  numbered 
among  its  contributions  long  articles  not  unlike  the  leading  arti- 
cles of  our  modern  magazines.  The  essays  are  liberally  quoted 
from  English  periodicals,  but  we  find  that  there  is  still  a  perversion 
of  the  term  ''Essay"  which  in  this  magazine,  as  in  others  of  its 
period,  is  applied  to  correspondence  on  all  sorts  of  subjects,  and 
more  remarkable  still,  all  the  bad  poems  in  which  the  numbers 
abound  are  termed  ''Poetical  Essays." 

Influence  ^^  ^^^  newspapers  and  magazines  which  follow  we 

of  the  notice  more  and  more  the  influence  of  the  Spectator 

pec  a  or.      ^^^    similar    English    periodicals.     These    American 

1  This  is  commonly  called  the  first  American  magazine  but  John  Webb  had 
issued  The  American  Magazine  three  days  before  the  appearance  of  Frank- 
lin's, by  which  it  was  soon  supplanted. 


24  Graduate  School  Publications. 

publications  became  a  medium  of  expression  for  various  friends 
of  the  editors  whose  ventures  they  wished  to  help  along,  desiring 
at  the  same  time  to  see  their  own  thoughts  in  print.  These  un- 
paid contributors  assumed  characters,  as  did  Addison,  Steele  and 
Johnson,  and  over  their  chosen  signatures  conducted  columns  of 
their  own  contributions  and  correspondence  with  readers,  some- 
times lively,  more  often  monotonous,  and  rarely  approaching 
anything  like  the  art  of  their  English  models. ^ 

It  would  be  in  no  wise  contributory  to  make  separate 

Journalism 

at  the  close  of  mention  of  all  the  magazines,  periodicals  and  gazettes 
^e  Colonial  which  wcrc  published  during  the  closing  years  of  the 
colonial  period,  and  nearly  all  of  which  contain  few  or 
many  essays.  As  the  numbers  of  these  various  periodicals  ap- 
proach the  time  of  the  Revolution,  we  note  that  more  and  more 
space  is  devoted  to  politics^  and  important  current  news,  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  entertaining  contributions.  Belles  Lettres  were 
about  to  suffer  a  period  of  enforced  dormancy.  There  is  one 
magazine,  however,  which  deserves  special  mention,  and  of  all 
those  examined  it  was  the  last  to  be  published  in  the  period 
of  which  this  chapter  treats.  The  magazine  referred  to  is 
The  Pennsylvania  Magazine  or  American  Monthly  Museum, 
printed  by  R.  Aitken,  and  this  exhibits  in  a  truly  remarkable 
degree  the  rapid  improvement  that  had  taken  place  not  only  in 
the  nature  of  our  journalistic  literature,  but  also  in  the  breadth 
and  scope  of  our  national  thought.  This  magazine  numbered 
among  its  essayists  such  men  as  John  Trumbull,  Francis  Hopkin- 
son  and  John  Witherspoon,  whom  the  next  period  was  to  make 
famous,  and  there  is  in  all  of  its  pages  a  decidedly  uplifted  tone 
in  thought  and  expression.  With  its  appearance  our  periodicals 
suddenly  rose  out  of  their  provincialism  and  won  an  American 
individuality,  and  this  fact  seems  all  the  more  remarkable  when 
we  remember  the  troublous  times  in  which  it  appeared.  It 
was  founded  on  the  very  eve  of  the  American  Revolution,  and 
yet  it  would  seem  that  the  same  spirit  which  moved  those  men  to 

1  Thus  we  find  columns  contributed  by  "The  Old  Bachelor,"  "The  Druid," 
"The  Meddler,"  "The  Hermit,"  "The  Planter,"  "The  Prattler,"  "The 
Impartial  Politician,"  etc. 

The  Bibliography  contains  a  full  list  of  all  the  newspapers,  periodicals, 
etc.,  which  were  consulted  in  preparing  this  chapter, 

2  Many  deservedly  famous  political  essays  appeared  toward  the  close  of  this 
period,  to  which  special  reference  will  be  made  in  the  next  chapter. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  25 

break  loose  from  the  political  trammels  of  the  mother-country 
impelled  them  also  to  win  an  independence  of  thought  and  ex- 
pression in  literature.  Of  the  strength  of  their  purpose,  the 
founding  and  successful  continuance  of  such  magazines  as  this 
are  abiding  evidence.  I  shall  let  the  editor  sum  up  his  own  diffi- 
culties as  expressed  in  his  Preface. 

It  should  be  observed  that  we  are  altogether  deprived  of  one 
considerable  fund  of  entertainment  which  contributes  largely 
to  the  embellishment  of  the  magazines  in  Europe,  viz.  Dis- 
coveries of  the  curious  remains  of  antiquity,  the  descriptions  of 
which  often  lead  to  interesting  confirmations  of  historical  facts, 
or  plainly  points  to  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  former  ages. 
A  new  settled  country  cannot  be  expected  to  afford  any  entertain- 
ment of  this  kind.  We  can  look  no  farther  back  than  to  the  rude 
manners  and  customs  of  the  savage  aborigines  of  North  America, 
Nevertheless,  as  even  they  may  afford  many  curious  particulars, 
we  should  be  much  obliged  to  any  of  our  correspondents  who 
should  furnish  us  with  such  accounts  of  them  as  come  to  their 
knowledge.^ 

But  the  principal  difficulty  in  our  way  is  the  present  unfortu- 
nate condition  of  public  affairs.  These,  whose  leisure  and  abili- 
ties might  lead  them  to  a  successful  application  of  the  Muses, 
now  turn  their  attention  to  the  rude  preparations  for  war. 
Every  heart  and  hand  seem  to  be  engaged  in  the  interesting 
struggle  for  American  Liberty.  Till  this  important  point  is 
settled,  the  pen  of  the  poet  and  the  books  of  the  learned  must 
be  in  a  great  measure  neglected.  The  arts  and  sciences  are  not 
cultivated  to  advantage,  but  in  the  fruitful  soil  of  peace,  and 
in  the  fostering  sunshine  of  Constitutional  Liberty. 

There  is  in  the  first  number  an  essay  so  excellent  that  I  have 
considered  the  following  extracts  from  it  a  fitting  conclusion  to 
this  chapter,  for  in  style  and  content  they  seem  to  reflect  credit 
on  the  essay  of  the  period  that  was  ending  and  at  the  same  time 
prophesy  better  things  for  the  period  to  come. 

'*  A  magazine  can  never  want  matter  in  America,  if  the  inhabi- 
tants will  do  justice  to  their  own  abilities.  Agriculture  and 
manufacturing  owe  much  of  their  improvement  in  England  to 
hints  first  thrown  out  in  some  of  their  magazines.  Gentlemen 
whose  abilities  enable  them  to  make  experiments,  frequently 
chose  this  method  of  communication,  on  account  of  its  conve- 
nience. And  why  should  not  the  same  spirit  operate  in  America? 
I  have  no  doubt  but  of  seeing,  in  a  little  time,  an  American 
magazine  full  of  more  useful  matter,  than  I  ever  saw  in  an  English 

1  We  note  here  the  editor's  naive  confession  that  he  had  an  eye  to  business. 


26  Graduate  School  Publications. 

one:  Because  we  are  not  exceeded  in  abilities,  have  a  more  ex- 
tensive field  for  enquiry;  and  whatever  may  be  our  political  state, 
our  happiness  will  always  depend  on  ourselves." 

"The  press  has  not  only  a  great  influence  over  our  manners 
and  morals,  but  contributes  largely  to  our  pleasures;  and  a  maga- 
zine, when  properly  enriched  is  very  conveniently  calculated 
for  this  purpose.  Voluminous  works  weary  the  patience,  but 
here  we  are  united  by  conciseness  and  variety.  As  I  have  for- 
merly received  much  pleasure  from  perusing  these  kinds  of  pub- 
lications, I  wish  the  present  success;  and  have  no  doubt  of  seeing 
a  proper  diversity  blended  so  agreeably  together,  as  to  furnish 
out  an  Olio  worthy  of  the  company  for  whom  it  is  designed. 

I  consider  a  magazine  as  a  kind  of  bee-hive,  which  both  al- 
lures the  swarm,  and  provides  room  to  store  the  sweets.  Its 
division  into  cells  gives  every  bee  a  province  of  its  own;  and 
though  they  all  produce  honey,  yet  perhaps  they  differ  in  their 
taste  for  flowers,  and  extract  with  greater  dexterity  from  one  than 
from  another.  Thus  we  are  not  all  Philosophers,  all  Artists, 
nor  all  Poets.'' 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE   FIRST  AMERICAN  PERIOD. 

1775-1807. 

Benjamin  Literary  events  are  not  always  simultaneous  with 

Franklin  as  historical  ones,  and  in  studies  of  literature  it  some- 
an  Essayist,  ^j^qq  seems  cousisteut  to  make  the  divisions  of  time 
fall  in  line  with  new  departures  in  literary  activities  rather  than 
with  historical  epochs.  For  that  reason,  though  I  have  ventured 
to  let  this  chapter  begin  with  the  date  that  marks  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Revolution  because  the  years  of  warfare  left  their 
definite  impression  upon  the  essays  of  the  period,  I  have  ended  it 
with  the  date  of  the  appearance  of  Washington  Irving^s  first 
publication,  for  the  reason  that  with  Irving  began  a  new  literary 
era  more  distinctly  American  than  this  one,  which  is  American 
only  in  retrospect  and  so  called  because  the  prophecy  of  1776 
was  fulfilled  in  the  final  establishment  of  an  American  nation. 
Somewhat  the  same  motive  has  induced  me  to  leave  for  this 
chapter  the  consideration  of  the  essays  of  Benjamin  Franklin, 
for  although  many  of  them  appeared  in  the  decades  covered  by 
the  first  chapter,  it  was  the  events  of  this  period  which  brought 
Franklin  into  a  world-wide  prominence,  and  an  enduring  fame 
which  lent  an  interest  and  value  to  his  writings  over  and  above 
that  of  their  literary  merit. 

The  essays  of  Franklin  have  been  of  secondary 
"The^sp^ecte-  interest  to  many  of  his  biographers  and  they  were 
tor"  upon  probably  justified  in  making  Poor  Richard  and  the 
J^i^  ^  Autobiography  their  chief  consideration.  But  never- 
theless, as  an  essayist,  Franklin  holds  a  distinctive 
place  in  our  literature.  It  was  he  who  departed  from  the 
colonial  traditions  and  restrictions,  adopted  a  true  literary 
method;  became  a  pioneer  of  American  humor,  gave  to  his  works 
an  American  individuality,  made  them  dear  to  his  contempora- 
ries and  us,  and  blazed  a  trail  for  the  greater  essayists  who  were 
to  follow  him.  Franklin  was  the  first  American  writer  to  make 
a  definite  study  of  prose  style  and  to  keep  to  its  canons  in 
his  writings.     Readers  of  his  Autobiography  are  famiUar  with 


\. 


28  Graduate  School  Publications. 

the  account  of  his  earliest  reading.  In  connection  with  our 
study  of  his  colonial  predecessors  among  the  American  essayists 
we  note  that  one  of  the  first  books  to  be  read  by  him  was  Cotton 
Mather's  Essays  to  do  Good.  Still  more  interesting  is  his 
account  of  how  he  came  under  the  influence  of  the  Spectator, 
He  says — 

"About  this  time,  I  met  with  an  odd  volume  of  the  Spectator. 
I  had  never  before  seen  any  of  them.  I  bought  it,  read  it  over 
and  over,  and  was  much  delighted  with  it,  I  thought  the  writing 
excellent,  and  wished  if  possible  to  imitate  it.  With  that  view, 
I  took  some  of  the  papers,  and  making  short  hints  of  the  senti- 
ments in  each  sentence,  laid  them  by  for  a  few  days,  and  then, 
without  looking  at  the  book,  tried  to  complete  the  paper  again, 
by  expressing  each  hinted  sentiment  at  length,  and  as  fully  as 
it  had  been  expressed  before,  in  any  suitable  words  that  should 
occur  to  me.  Then  I  compared  my  Spectator  with  the  original, 
discovered  some  of  the  faults,  and  corrected  them.  But  I  found 
I  wanted  a  stock  of  words,  or  a  readiness  in  recollecting  and 
using  them,  which  I  thought  I  should  have  acquired  before  that 
time,  if  I  had  gone  on  making  verses;  since  the  continual  search 
for  words  of  the  same  import,  but  of  different  length  to  suit 
the  measure,  or  of  different  sound  for  the  rhyme,  would  have  laid 
me  under  a  constant  necessity  of  searching  for  variety,  and  also 
have  tended  to  fix  that  variety  in  my  mind,  and  make  me  master 
of  it.  Therefore  I  took  some  of  the  tales  in  the  Spectator,  and 
turned  them  into  verse,  and,  after  a  time,  when  I  had  pretty  well 
forgotten  the  prose,  turned  them  back  again. 

I  also  sometimes  jumbled  my  collection  of  hints  into  confusion, 
and  after  some  weeks  endeavoured  to  reduce  them  into  the  best 
order  before  I  began  to  form  the  full  sentences  and  complete  the 
subject.  This  was  to  teach  me  method  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  thoughts.  By  comparing  my  work  with  the  original,  I 
discovered  many  faults,  and  corrected  them ;  but  I  sometimes  had 
the  pleasure  to  fancy,  that,  in  certain  particulars  of  small  conse- 
quence, I  had  been  fortunate  enough  to  improve  the  method  or 
the  language,  and  this  encouraged  me  to  think,  that  I  might 
in  time  come  to  be  a  tolerable  English  writer;  of  which  I  was  ex- 
tremely ambitious.^ 

Franklin  never  outgrew  his  admiration  of  the  Addisonian  style 
and  all  of  his  works  show  its  influence.  His  earlier  essays  in 
particular  are  usually  designated  as  Addisonian.  The  first  of 
these  were  the  "Dogood"  papers,  which  appeared  anonymously 
in  his  brother's  weekly,  the  New  England  Courant.  These 
papers  are  not  inserted  in  any  collection  of  his  works.     No  men- 

1  The  works  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  edited  by  Jared  Sparks,  Vol.  I,  p.  18. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  29 

tion  is  made  of  them  as  such  in  the  Autobiography,  but  in  the 
notes  kept  by  Frankhn  when  about  to  write  his  life  he  claims  them 
as  his  own,  and  it  is  to  these  papers  that  he  refers  in  the  following 
account  of  his  earliest  literary  efforts. 

''Being  still  a  boy,  and  suspecting  that  my  brother  would  ob- 
ject to  printing  anything  of  mine  in  his  paper,  if  he  knew  it 
to  be  mine,  I  contrived  to  disguise  my  hand,  and,  writing  an 
anonymous  paper  I  put  it  at  night  under  the  door  of  the  printing 
house.  It  was  found  in  the  morning,  and  communicated  to  his 
writing  friends  when  they  called  in  as  usual.  They  read  it, 
commented  on  it  in  my  hearing,  and  I  had  the  exquisite  pleasure 
of  finding  it  met  with  their  approbation,  and  that,  in  their  differ- 
ent guess  at  the  author,  none  were  named  but  men  of  some  charac- 
ter among  us  for  learning  and  ingenuity.  I  suppose,  that  I 
was  rather  lucky  in  my  judges,  and  that  they  were  not  really  so 
good  as  I  then  believed  them  to  be.  Encouraged  however  by 
this  attempt,  I  wrote  and  sent  in  the  same  way  to  the  press  several 
other  pieces,  that  were  equally  approved."  ^ 

His  early  These  cssays,  written  in  the  character  of  ''Silence 

Essays.  Dogood "   show  how  closcly   Franklin  followed   his 

Spectator  models  in  spirit,  diction  and  method.  Mrs.  Dogood 
wished  to  please  and  amuse  her  readers,  and  succeeded  in  doing 
so  by  a  series  of  papers  on  a  motley  assortment  of  themes. ^  These 
papers  will  not  stand  comparison  with  his  later  essays,  yet  even 
in  these  early  efforts  Franklin  gave  to  his  contemporaries  a  much- 
needed  example  in  the  use  of  good  readable  English.  His  next 
essays  were  the  "Busybody"  papers,  contributed  to  Bradford's 
American  Weekly  Mercury.  In  these,  Franklin  showed  a  more 
serious  motive  than  that  which  prompted  the  "Dogood"  series,' 
aiming  still  to  amuse  his  readers,  but  also  to  check  their  follies 
and  give  them  an  impetus  toward  a  broader  culture  and  an  im- 
proved method  of  expression  in  literature.  The  following  essay, 
the  first  of  the  series,  expresses  his  intentions  and  illustrates  the 
style  of  the  papers  which  he  contributed  to  the  "Busybody" 
series. 

Mr  Andrew  Bradford:  I  design  this  to  acquaint  you  that  I, 
who  have  long  been  one  of  your  courteous  readers,  have  lately 
entertained  some  thought  of  setting  up  for  an  author  myself; 

1  Ihid.,  p.  23. 

2  The  New  England  Courant,  in  its  earlier  numbers  contained  many  read- 
able essays. 


30  Graduate  School  Publications. 

not  out  of  the  least  vanity,  I  assure  you,  or  desire  of  showing 
my  parts,  but  purely  for  the  good  of  my  country. 

I  have  often  observed  with  concern  that  your  Mercury  is 
not  always  equally  entertaining.  The  delay  of  ships  expected 
in  and  want  of  fresh  advices  from  Europe  make  it  frequently 
very  dull;  and  I  find  the  freezing  of  our  river  has  the  same  effect 
on  news  as  trade.  With  more  concern  have  I  continually 
observed  the  growing  vices  and  follies  of  my  countryfolk;  and 
though  reformation  is  properly  the  concern  of  every  man,  that 
is,  every  one  ought  to  mend  one;  yet  it  is  too  true  the  case  that 
what  is  everybody's  business  is  nobody's  business;  and  the 
business  is  done  accordingly.  I  therefore,  upon  mature  deliber- 
ation, think  fit  to  take  nobody's  business  wholly  into  my  own 
hands;  and,  out  of  zeal  for  the  pubUc  good,  design  to  erect  my- 
self into  a  kind  of  censor  morum,  purposing  with  your  allowance 
to  make  use  of  the  Weekly  Mercury  as  a  vehicle  in  which  my 
remonstrances  shall  be  conveyed  to  the  world. 

I  am  sensible  I  have  in  this  particular  undertaken  a  very 
unthankful  office,  and  expect  little  besides  labour  for  my  pains. 
Nay,  it  is  possible  I  may  displease  a  great  number  of  your  readers, 
who  will  not  very  well  like  to  pay  ten  shillings  a  year  for  being 
told  of  their  faults.  But,  as  most  people  delight  ii\_  censure 
when  they  themselves  are  not  the  object  of  it,  if  they  are  offended 
at  my  publicly  exposing  their  private  vices,  I  promise  they  shall 
have  satisfaction,  in  a  very  little  time,  of  seeing  their  good  friends 
and  neighbors  in  the  same  circumstances. 

However,  let  the  fair  sex  be  assured  that  I  shall  always  treat 
them  and  their  affairs  with  the  utmost  decency  and  respect. 
I  intend  now  and  then  to  dedicate  a  chapter  wholly  to  their 
service;  and  if  my  lectures  any  way  contribute  to  the  embellish- 
ment of  their  minds  and  brightening  of  their  understandings, 
without  offending  their  modesty,  I  doubt  not  of  having  their 
favor  and  encouragement. 

It  is  certain  that  no  country  in  the  world  produces  naturally 
finer  spirits  than  ours;  men  of  genius  for  every  kind  of  science, 
and  capable  of  acquiring  to  perfection  every  quality  that  is  in 
esteem  among  mankind.  But  as  few  here  have  the  advantage 
of  good  books,  for  want  of  which  good  conversation  is  still  more 
scarce,  it  would  doubtless  have  been  very  acceptable  to  your 
readers,  if,  instead  of  an  old  out-of-date  article  from  Muscovy 
or  Hungary,  you  had  entertained  them  with  some  well-chosen 
extracts  from  a  good  author.  This  I  shall  sometimes  do,  when  I 
happen  to  have  nothing  of  my  own  to  say  that  I  think  of  more 
consequence.  Sometimes  I  purpose  to  deliver  lectures  of  morality 
or  philosophy,  and  (because  I  am  naturally  inclined  to  be  meddling 
with  things  that  do  not  concern  me)  perhaps  I  may  sometimes 
talk  politics.  And  if  I  can  by  any  means  furnish  out  a  weekly 
entertainment  for  the  public  that  will  give  a  rational  diversion, 
and  at  the  same  time  be  instructive  to  the  readers,  I  shall  think 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  31 

my  leisure  hours  well  employed;  and  if  you  publish  this  I  hereby 
invite  all  ingenious  gentlemen  and  others  (that  approve  of  such 
an  undertaking)  to  my  assistance  and  correspondence. 

It  is  like  by  this  time  that  you  have  a  curiosity  to  be  ac- 
quainted with  my  name  and  character.  As  I  do  not  aim  at 
public  praise,  I  design  to  remain  concealed;  and  there  are  such 
numbers  of  our  family  and  relations  at  this  time  in  the  country, 
that  though  I  have  signed  my  name  at  full  length,  I  am  not  under 
the  least  apprehension  of  being  distinguished  and  discovered  by 
it.  My  character  indeed,  I  would  favour  you  with,  but  that  I  am 
cautious  of  praising  myself,  lest  I  should  be  told  my  Trumpe- 
ter's dead;  and  I  cannot  find  in  my  heart  at  present  to  say  any- 
thing to  my  own  disadvantage.  It  is  very  common  with  authors, 
in  their  first  performances,  to  talk  to  their  readers  thus;  ''If 
this  meets  with  a  suitable  reception,  or,  if  this  should  meet  with 
due  encouragement,  I  shall  hereafter  publish,  etc."  This  only 
manifests  the  value  they  put  on  their  own  writings,  since  they 
think  to  frighten  the  public  into  their  applause,  by  threatening 
that,  unless  you  approve  what  they  have  already  wrote,  they 
intend  never  to  write  again;  when  perhaps  it  may  not  be  a  pin 
matter  whether  they  ever  do  or  no.  As  I  have  not  observed  the 
critics  to  be  more  favorable  on  this  account,  I  shall  always  avoid 
saying  anything  of  the  kind;  and  conclude  with  telUng  you  that, 
if  you  send  me  a  bottle  of  ink  and  a  quire  of  paper  by  the  bearer, 
you  may  depend  on  hearing  further  from.  Sir,  your  most  humble 
servant. 

The  Busybody .1 

It  would  not  be  fair  to  compare  these  early  essays  of  Franklin's 
with  those  of  Addison,  nor  to  judge  them  by  modern  standards. 
In  order  to  value  them  at  their  true  worth  we  must  recognize 
the  fact  that  they  contain  certain  excellencies  which,  until  their 
appearance,  had  been  entirely  lacking  in  the  colonial  periodical 
productions, — the  use  of  a  pure  EngHsh  diction,  a  style  simple, 
direct  and  free  of  bombast  and  ornamentation,  an  admirable 
clearness  of  expression  by  which  Franklin  remains  one  of  the  most 
readable  of  all  our  essayists.  ''No  man  ever  read  a  sentence  of 
Franklin's  essays  and  doubted  what  it  meant,"  says  a  biographer  ^ 
and  we  wonder  if  such  a  statement  could  be  made  of  his  most 
famous  successors  in  the  field  of  American  Essay  writing, 
other  Essays.       In  1729  Franklin  and  Meredith  became  proprietors 

1 1  quote  from  the  Bigelow  edition  of  the  complete  works  of  Franklin,  Vol. 
1,  p.  329.  This  essay  originally  appeared  in  the  American  Weekly  Mercury 
of  February  4,  1728. 

^Benjamin  Franklin  as  a  Man  of  Letters,  by  John  Bach  McMaster, 
Boston.  1896. 


32  Graduate  School  Publications. 

of  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette,^  and  in  this  paper  Franklin,  for  lack 
of  other  contributors,  ''carried  on  a  lively  correspondence  with 
himself,"  by  a  series  of  papers  instructive  or  amusing.  In  the 
Gazette  he  published  more  serious  essays,  and  the  following  of 
his  best  known  pieces  originally  appeared  in  its  numbers.  ''The 
Meditations  of  a  Quart  Mug,"  "The  Account  of  the^Witch  Trial 
at  Mount  Holly"  and  "The  Thoughts  of  the  Ephemera  on 
Human  Vanity"  any  of  which  will  bear  comparison  with  some  of 
the  essays  of  Addison.     I  quote  the  Ephemera. 

Sir: — Meeting  with  the  following  little  curious  Piece  the  other 
Day,  I  send  it  to  you  to  re-publish,  as  it  is  now  in  very  few 
Hands.  There  is  something  so  elegant  in  the  Imagination, 
convey'd  in  so  delicate  a  Stile,  and  accompany'd  with  a  Moral 
so  just  and  elevated,  that  it  must  yield  great  Pleasure  and  In- 
struction to  every  mind  of  real  Taste  and  Virtue. 

Cicero  in  his  Tusculan  Questions,  freely  exposes  the  Vain 
Judgement  we  are  apt  to  form  of  the  duration  of  Human  Life, 
compared  to  Eternity.  In  illustrating  this  Argument,  he  quotes 
a  passage  of  Natural  History  from  Aristotle  concerning  a  species 
of  Insects  on  the  Banks  of  the  River  Hypanis,  that  never  outlive 
the  Day  in  which  they  are  horn. 

To  pursue  the  Thought  of  this  elegant  Writer;  Let  us  suppose 
one  of  the  most  robust  of  these  Hypanians  (so  famed  in  History) 
was  in  a  manner  Coeval  with  Time  itself,  that  he  began  to  exist 
at  the  Break  of  Day;  and  that,  from  the  uncommon  Strength 
of  his  Constitution,  he  has  been  able  to  show  himself  active  in 
Life  through  the  numberless  winters  of  Ten  or  Twelve  Hours. 
Through  so  long  a  Series  of  Seconds,  he  must  have  acquired  vast 
Wisdom  in  his  Way,  from  Observation  and  Experience.  He 
looks  upon  his  Fellow-Creatures,  who  died  about  Noon,  to  be 
Happily  delivered  from  the  many  Inconveniences  of  Old  Age; 
and  can  perhaps  recount  to  his  Great  Grandson  a  surprising 
Tradition  of  Actions  before  any  Records  of  their  Nation  were 
extant.  The  young  Swarm,  who  may  be  advanced  one  Hour  in 
Life,  approach  his  Person  with  Respect,  and  listen  to  his  improving 
Discourse.  Every  Thing  he  says  will  seem  wonderful  to  this 
short-lived  Generation.  The  compass  of  a  Day  will  be  esteemed 
a  whole  Duration  of  Time;  and  the  first  Dawn  of  Light  will  in 
their  Chronology  be  stiled  the  Great  Era  of  their  Creation. 

Let  us  now  suppose  this  Venerable  Insect,  this  Nestor  of  Hy- 
panis,  should  a  little  before  his  Death,  and  about  Sun-set,  send 
for  all  his  Descendants,  his  Friends  and  his  Acquaintance,  out 
of  the  Desire  he  may  have  to  impart  his  Last  Thoughts  to  them, 
and  to  admonish  them  with  his  parting  Breath.     They  meet 

^  Originally  known  as  "The  Universal  Instructor  in  all  Arts  and  sciences  and 
Pennsylvania  Gazette,"  first  issued  December  28,  1728. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  33 

perhaps  under  the  Spacious  Shelter  of  a  Mushroom;  and  the  dying 
Sage  addresses  himself  to  them  after  the  following  Manner. 

''Friends  and  Fellow-Citizens;  I  perceive  the  longest  life 
'must  have  aa  End;  The  Period  of  mine  is  now  at  Hand;  Neither 
'  do  I  repine  at  my  Fate,  since  my  great  Age  is  become  a  Burden 
'to  me;  and  there  is  nothing  New  to  me  under  the  Sun.  The 
'  Changes  and  Evolutions  I  have  seen  in  my  Country,  the  Mani- 
'fold  private  Misfortunes  to  which  we  are  all  liable,  and  the  fatal 
'Diseases  incident  to  our  Race,  have  abundantly  taught  me  this 
'  Lesson,  that  no  Happiness  can  be  secure  or  lasting,  which  is 
'placed  in  things  which  are  out  of  our  Power.  Great  is  the 
'  Uncertainty  of  Life !  a  whole  Brood  of  our  Infants  perished  in  a 
'  Moment  by  a  keen  Blast :  shoals  of  our  straggling  Youth  have 
'been  swept  into  the  Waves  by  an  unexpected  Breeze:  What 
'wasteful  Deluges  have  we  suffered  from  a  sudden  Shower? 
'Our  strongest  Holds  are  not  Proof  against  a  Storm  of  Hail; 
'  and  even  a  dark  Cloud  damps  the  stoutest  Heart. 

"I  have  lived  in  the  first  Age,  and  conversed  with  Insects 
'  of  a  larger  size,  and  stronger  Make,  and  (I  must  add)  of  greater 
'Virtue,  than  can  any  boast  of  in  the  present  Generation.  I 
'must  conjure  you  to  give  yet  further  Credit  to  my  latest 
'  Words,  when  I  assure  you,  that  yonder  Sun,  which  now  appears 
'  Westward  beyond  the  Waters,  and  seems  not  to  be  far  distant 
'  from  the  Earth,  in  my  remembrance  stood  in  the  Middle  of  the 
'Sky,  and  shot  his  Beams  directly  down  upon  us.  The  World 
'was  much  more  enlightened  in  those  Ages,  and  the  Air  much 
'warmer.  Think  it  not  Dotage  in  me  if  I  affirm.  That  Glorious 
'Being  moves.  I  saw  his  first  Setting-out  in  the  East;  and  I 
'  began  my  Race  of  Life  near  the  Time  when  he  began  his  im- 
'mense  Career.  He  has  for  several  Ages  advanced  along  the 
'Sky  with  vast  Heat  and  unparalleled  Brightness;  but  now  by  his 
'Declension,  and  a  sensible  Decay  (more  especially  of  Late) 
'  in  his  vigour,  I  f orsee  that  all  Nature  must  fall  in  a  little  Time, 
'  and  that  the  Creation  will  be  buried  in  darkness  in  less  than  a 
'  Century  of  Minutes. 

"Alas  my  Friends!  How  did  I  once  flatter  myself  with  the 
'hopes  of  abiding  here  for  ever!  How  magnificent  are  the  Cells 
'  that  I  hollowed  out  for  myself !  What  Confidence  did  I  repose 
'  in  the  Firmness  and  Spring  of  my  Joints,  and  in  the  Strength  of 
'my  Pinions!  But  I  have  lived  enough  to  Nature  and  even  to 
'Glory:  Neither  will  any  of  you  whom  I  leave  behind  have  equal 
'Satisfaction  in  Life,  in  the  Dark,  declining  Age  which  I  see  is 
'already  begun." 

Thus  far  this  agreeable  unknown  writer;  too  agreeable,  we 
may  hope,  to  remain  always  conceal'd.  The  fine  allusion  to  the 
Character  of  JULIUS  CAESAR,  whose  words  he  has  put  into 
the  Mouth  of  this  illustrious  Son  of  Hypanis,  is  perfectly  just  and 
beautiful,  and  aptly  points  out  the  Moral  of  this  inimitable 
Piece,  the  Design  of  which  would  have  been  quite  perverted,  had 


34  Graduate  School  Publications. 

2l  virtuous  Character,  a  Cato  or  a  Cicero,  been  made  choice  of  to 
have  been  turned  into  Ridicule.  Had  this  Life  of  a  Day  been 
represented  as  employed  in  the  exercise  of  Virtue,  it  would  have 
had  equal  Dignity  with  a  Life  of  any  Limited  Duration;  and  ac- 
cording to  the  exalted  Sentiments  of  SULLY,  would  have  been 
preferable  to  an  Immortality,  filled  with  all  the  Pleasures  of 
Sense,  if  void  of  those  of  a  higher  Kind.  But  as  the  Views  of 
this  vain-glorious  Insect  were  confined  within  the  narrow  Circle 
of  his  existence,  as  he  only  boasts  the  magnificent  Cells  he  has 
built,  and  the  Length  of  Happiness  he  has  enjoyed,  he  is  the 
proper  Emblem  of  all  such  Insects  of  the  Human  Race ;  whose 
Ambition  does  not  extend  beyond  the  like  narrow  limits;  and 
notwithstanding  the  Splendour  they  appear  in  at  present,  they 
will  no  more  derseve  the  Regard  of  Posterity  than  the  Butter- 
flies of  the  last  Spring.  In  vain  has  History  been  taken  up  in 
describing  the  numerous  Swarms  of  this  mischevious  Species 
which  has  infested  the  Earth  in  the  successive  Ages:  Nor  is  it 
worth  the  enquiry  of  Virtuesoses,  whether  the  Rhine  or  the  Adige 
may  not  perhaps  swarm  with  them  at  present,  as  much  as  the 
Banks  of  Hypanis;  or  whether  the  Silver  Rivulet,  the  Thames 
may  not  show  a  spacious  Mole-Hill,  covered  with  inhabitants  of 
the  like  dignity  and  Importance.  The  busy  Race  of  Beings, 
attached  to  these  fleeting  Enjoyments,  are  indeed  all  of  them 
engaged  in  the  Pursuit  of  Happiness:  And  it  is  owing  to  their 
imperfect  Notions  of  it,  that  they  stop  so  far  short  in  their  Pur- 
suit. The  present  Prospect  of  Pleasure  seems  to  bound  their 
Views;  and  the  more  distant  Scenes  of  Happiness  that  will 
open  to  their  Sight,  when  what  they  now  propose  shall  be  at- 
tained, do  not  yet  strike  their  Imagination.  It  is  great  Stupidity 
(or  Thoughtlesness)  not  to  perceive,  that  the  Happiness  of 
Rational  Natures  is  inseparably  connected  with  Immortality. 
Creatures  only  endued  with  Sense,  may,  in  a  low  Sense  be  reputed 
Happy  so  long  as  their  Sensations  are  pleasing;  and  if  these  pleas- 
ing Sensations  are  commensurate  to  the  Time  of  their  Existence, 
their  measure  of  Happiness  is  compleat.  But  such  Beings  as  are 
endued  with  Thought  and  Reflection,  cannot  be  made  Happy 
by  any  limited  Term  of  Happiness,  how  great  soever  its  duration 
may  be.  The  more  exquisite  and  more  valuable  their  enjoy- 
ments are,  the  more  painful  must  be  the  Thought  that  they  are 
to  have  an  End;  and  this  Pain  of  Expectation  must  be  continually 
encreasing  the  nearer  that  End  approaches.  And  if  these  Beings 
are  themselves  immortal,  and  yet  insecure  of  the  Continuance 
of  their  Happiness,  the  Case  is  far  worse;  since  an  eternal  Void 
DeUght,  if  not  to  say  a  State  of  Misery,  must  succeed.  It  would 
here  be  of  no  moment,  whether  the  Time  of  their  Happiness  were 
measured  by  Days  or  Hours,  by  Months  or  by  Periods  of  the  most 
Inconceivable  length.  These  swiftly  flowing  Streams  bear  no 
proportion  to  the  Ocean  of  Infinity,  where  they  finish  their  Course : 
The  longest  Duration  of  Finite  Happiness  avails  nothing  when  it 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  35 

is  past;  nor  can  the  Memory  of  it  have  any  other  Effect,  than  to 
render  a  perpetual  pining  after  Pleasures  never  to  return.  And 
since  Virtue  is  the  only  Pledge  and  Security  of  a  Happy  Immor- 
tality, the  Folly  of  sacrificing  it  to  any  Temporal  Advantages, 
how  important  soever  they  may  appear,  must  be  infinitely  Great, 
and  cannot  but  leave  behind  it  an  eternal  Regret.^ 
I  am  Sir,  Yours  &c. 

Hispouticai  The  Revolution  drew  Franklin  deep  into  politics, 
Essays.  g^j^d  he  produced  numerous  political  writings,  in  which 

he  at  first  endeavored  to  persuade  the  people  that  they  should 
desist  from  warfare  and  patiently  await  an  amicable  settlement 
of  their  grievances,  but  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he  lent  his 
pen  and  his  influence  to  the  success  of  his  countrymen.  His 
political  writings  differed  from  many  others  of  that  class  in  that 
they  were  characterized  by  moderation,  tolerance  and  humor — 
a  philosophical  absence  of  all  churlishness  or  rancour.^ 
The  Franklin  throughout  his  life  was  an  indefatigable 

"BagateUes."  contributor  of  essays  to  the  magazines  and  periodicals 
both  at  home  and  in  England  and  France.  During  his  residence 
in  the  latter  country  he  wrote  his  Bagatelles,  as  his  contribu- 
tion to  the  amusement  of  the  gatherings  in  the  Salon  of  Madame 
Helve  tins  at  Auteil,  and  of  Madame  Brillon  at  Moulin  Joli. 
These  included  ''The  Story  of  the  Whistle";  ''The  Handsome  and 
Deformed  Leg";  "The  Morals  of  Chess,"  and  "The  Dialogue 
between  Franklin  and  the  Gout."  All  of  these  exhibit  a  lightness 
of  touch,  a  grace  of  expression,  a  sparkle  of  wit,  which  we  may 
attribute  to  French  influence.  Among  them  was  "The  Ephem- 
era," which  I  shall  insert,  for,  compared  with  the  earlier  essay 
on  the  same  subject  already  quoted,  it  marks  the  evolution  in 
Franklin's  style,  which  is  noticeable  in  all  his  later  writings. 
How  lengthy  and  tedious  appears  the  first  essay  after  reading 
the  following  treatment  of  the  same  theme!  The  contrast  is 
remarkable  as  showing  the  stylistic  evolution  which  is  possible 
even  in  the  years  of  one  writer.     It  exemphfies  the  suddenness 

1  The  Pennsylvania  Gazette,  December  4-11,  1735. 

2  Among  Franklin's  political  essays  and  pamphlets  are  the  following: — "A 
Dissertation  on  Liberty  and  Necessity,  Pleasure  and  Pain";  "Plain  Truth"; 
"A  Dialogue  between  X,  Y  and  Z  concerning  the  present  state  of  affairs  in 
Pennsylvania";  "Remarks  on  a  Protest" ;  "Rules  for  Reducing  a  Great  Empire 
to  a  Small  One";  "An  Edict  of  the  King  of  Prussia";  "A  Comparison  of  Great 
Britain  and  America  as  to  Credit  in  1777";  "A  Catechism  relating  to  the 
English  National  Debt,"  etc. 


36  Graduate  School  Publications . 

with  which  our  literary  style  emerged  from  verbosity  and  ob- 
scurity into  the  artistic  conciseness  and  clearness  which  have 
become  its  chief  charms. 

*'To  Madame  Brillon,  of  Passy. 

You  may  remember,  my  dear  friend,  that  when  we  spent  that 
happy  day  in  the  delightful  garden  and  sweet  society  of  theMoulin 
Joli,  I  stopped  a  little  in  one  of  our  walks,  and  stayed  some  time 
behind  the  company.  We  had  been  shown  numberless  skeletons 
of  a  kind  of  little  fly,  called  an  ephemera,  whose  sucessive  genera- 
tions, we  were  told,  were  bred  and  expired  within  a  day.  I 
happened  to  see  a  living  company  of  them  on  a  leaf,  who  appeared 
to  be  engaged  in  conversation.  You  know  I  understand  all  the 
inferior  animal  tongues.  My  too  great  application  to  the  study 
of  them  is  the  best  excuse  I  can  give  for  the  little  progress  I  have 
made  in  your  charming  language.  I  listened  through  curiosity 
to  the  discourse  of  these  little  creatures;  but  as  they,  in  their 
national  vivacity,  spoke  three  or  four  together,  I  could  make  but 
little  of  their  conversation.  I  found,  however,  by  some  broken  ex- 
pressions that  I  heard  now  and  then,  they  were  disputing  warmly, 
on  the  merit  of  two  foreign  musicians,  one  a  cousin,  the  other  a 
moscheto;  in  which  dispute  they  spent  their  time,  seemingly  as 
regardless  of  the  shortness  of  life  as  if  they  had  been  sure  of  living 
a  month.  '  Happy  people!'  thought  I;  'you  are  certainly  under  a 
wise,  just  and  mild  government,  since  you  have  no  public  griev- 
ances to  complain  of,  nor  any  subject  of  contention  but  the  per- 
fections and  Imperfections  of  foreign  music'  I  turned  my  head 
from  them  to  an  old  grey-headed  one,  who  was  single  on  another 
leaf,  and  talking  to  himself.  Being  amused  with  his  soliloquy, 
I  put  it  down  in  writing,  in  hopes  it  will  likewise  amuse  her  to 
whom  I  am  indebted  for  the  most  pleasing  of  all  amusements,  her 
delicious  company  and  heavenly  harmony. 

^It  was,'  said  he,  'the  opinion  of  learned  philosophers  of  our 
race,  who  lived  and  flourished  long  before  my  time,  that  this 
vast  world,  The  Moulin  Joli,  could  not  itself  exist  more  than 
eighteen  hours;  and  I  think  there  was  some  foundation  for  that 
opinion,  since  by  the  apparent  motion  of  the  great  luminary 
that  gives  life  to  all  nature,  and  which  in  my  time  has  evidently 
declined  considerably  towards  the  ocean  at  the  end  of  our  earth, 
it  must  then  finish  its  course,  be  extinguished  in  the  waters 
that  surround  us,  and  leave  the  world  in  cold  and  darkness, 
have  necessarily  producing  universal  death  and  destruction.  I 
lived  seven  of  these  hours,  a  great  age,  being  no  less  than 
four  hundred  and  twenty  minutes  of  time.  How  very  few  of  us 
continue  so  long!  I  have  seen  generations  born,  flourish  and 
expire.  My  present  friends  are  the  children  and  grandchildren 
of  the  friends  of  my  youth,  who  are  now,  alas,  no  more !  And  I 
must  soon  follow  them;  for,  by  the  course  of  nature,  though 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  37 

still  in  health,  I  cannot  expect  to  live  above  seven  or  eight  min- 
utes longer.  What  now  avails  all  my  toil  and  labor,  in  amassing 
honey-dew  on  this  leaf,  which  I  cannot  live  to  enjoy?  What  the 
political  struggles  I  have  been  engaged  in,  for  the  good  of  my 
compatriots,  inhabitants  of  this  bush,  or  my  philosophical 
studies  for  the  benefit  of  our  race  in  general!  for,  in  politics, 
what  can  laws  do  without  morals?  Our  present  race  of  emphem- 
erae  will  in  a  course  of  minutes  become  corrupt,  like  those  of 
other  and  older  bushes,  and  consequently  as  wretched.  And 
in  philosophy  how  small  our  progress!  Alas!  art  is  long,  and 
life  is  short!  My  friends  would  comfort  me  with  the  idea  of  a 
name,  they  say  I  shall  leave  behind  me;  and  they  tell  me  I  have 
lived  long  enough  to  nature  and  to  glory.  But  what  will  fame 
be  to  an  ephemera  who  no  longer  exists?  And  what  will  become 
of  all  history  in  the  eighteenth  hour,  when  the  world  itself, 
even  the  whole  Moulin  Joli,  shall  come  to  its  end,  and  be  buried 
in  universal  ruin?' 

To  me  after  all  my  eager  pursuits,  no  solid  pleasure  now  re- 
mains, but  the  reflection  of  a  long  life  spent  in  meaning  well, 
the  sensible  conversation  of  a  few  good  lady  emphemerae,  and 
now  and  then  a  kind  smile  and  a  tune  from  the  ever  amiable 
Brillante. 

B.  Franklin."!     . 

Franklin  made  familiar  to  his  fellow  Americans  the 

Franklin's  ! 

contribution     wit,  and  grace  and  stylistic  beauties  of  the  English! 

to  our  essayists.     Without  conscious  effort  on  his  part  he         / 

Hterature.  .         "^ ,  ,    .  .  .  .   .  .  .  .         t>^^      y 

mtroduced  mto  his  writings  a  new  American  note  of  j 
democracy,  straightforward  common  sense  and  shrewd,  kindly  I 
humor.     It  was  by  these  characteristics  in  his  works  that  he  won 
for  American  letters  the  first  recognition  in  England  and  on  the    | 
Continent,  2  and  these  same  qualities  have  won  for  him  the  first    \j 
place  among  the  earlier  writers  of  American  essays.  ' 

The  Pouticai  Many  of  FrankUn's  poUtical  essays  were  influential 
Essayists.  j^  their  day  but  are  now  forgotten.  The  same  fate 
has  befallen  the  bulk  of  the  political  writings  of  the  Revolution, 
and  those  which  are  remembered  seem  to  be  more  interesting  as 
history  than  as  Hterature.  Nevertheless  some  of  the  best  and 
most  representative  of  American  essays  were  inspired  by  the  polit- 
ical events  of  the  periods  of  the  Revolution  and  Reconstruction. 

1  Works.    Edited  by  Jared  Sparks.    Vol.  2,  pp.  177-179. 

2  ''Father  Abraham's  Address"  was  translated  into  French,  German,  Span- 
ish, Italian  and  Russian,  and  into  various  European  dialects;  it  has  been  fre- 
quently reprinted  in  many  languages.  Cf .  Benjamin  Franklin  as  a  Man  of 
Letters  by  John  Bach  McMaster,  p.  128. 


38  Graduate  School  Publications. 

During  these  years  a  war  of  words  was  fought  to  the  finish,  and 
in  fervor,  party  spirit  and  clashing  opinions  rivalled  the  actual 
conflicts  on  the  battlefields.  The  political  essays  fall  into  two 
divisions,  some  appearing  in  the  newspapers  while  others  were 
given  to  the  pubhc  in  pamphlet  form.  These  are  so  numerous 
that  a  whole  volume  might  well  be  devoted  to  their  study.  I 
have  chosen  to  consider  a  few  representative  writers,  whose 
political  essays  have  a  literary  interest. 

John  In   the   Pennsylvania   Chronicle  for   December   2, 

Dickinson.  1767,  appeared  the  first  of  a  series  of  twelve  essays 
(the  last  appearing  in  February  15,  1768),  known  as  the  ''Letters 
from  a  Farmer  in  Pennsylvania  to  the  Inhabitants  of  the  British 
Colonies,"  the  work  of  John  Dickinson.  Of  these  it  has  been 
said  that  ''no  other  serious  Essays  of  the  Revolutionary  era  quite 
equalled  the  Farmer's  Letters  in  literary  merit.  ^  Dickinson 
assumed  the  guise  of  a  plain  farmer  and  in  the  first  letter  so 
described  himself  as  to  win  a  fellow-feeUng  and  interest  from  his 
readers,  whom,  in  the  course  of  the  series  he  admonishes  to  obtain 
relief  but  to  maintain  loyalty  to  their  sovereign.  "Let  us,"  he 
«aid,  "behave  like  dutiful  children,  who  have  received  unmerited 
blows  from  a  beloved  parent.  Let  us  complain  to  our  parent; 
but  let  our  complaints  speak  at  the  same  time  the  language  of 
affection  and  veneration.  .  .  .  Though  your  devotion  to 
Great  Britain  is  the  most  affectionate,  yet  you  can  make  proper 
distinctions;  and  know  what  you  owe  to  yourselves  as  well  as 
to  her."  2 

^  These  essays  met  with  an  immediate  approval  and  popularity, 
were  republished  in  nearly  all  the  American  newspapers,^ 
and  were  issued  in  pamphlet  form.  Within  the  first  year  they 
were  published  in  London  and  Dublin  with  a  Preface  by  Franklin, 
and  in  the  following  year  they  were  issued  in  France.  London 
periodicals  reviewed  them  and  the  Whigs  endorsed  them  heartily 
in  the  following  notice  quoted  from  the  Monthly  Review. 

"We  have,  in  the  letters  now  before  us,  a  calm  yet  full  enquiry 
into  the  rights  of  the  British  Parliament,  lately  assumed,  to  tax 
the  American  colonies;  the  unconstitutional  nature  of  which 

'  The  Literary  History  of  the  American  Revolviion,  by  Moses  Coit  Tyler, 
New  York  and  London.     1897.    Vol.  1,  p.  236. 

2  The  Writings  of  John  Dickinson,  1764-1774.  Edited  by  Paul  Leicester 
Ford,  Philadelphia,  1895. 

3  lUd.,  p.  283. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  39 

attempt  is  maintained  in  a  well-connected  chain  of  close  and  manly 
reasoning.  .  .  .  When  we  review  a  performance  well  written, 
and  founded  upon  laudable  principles,  if  we  do  not  restrain  our- 
selves to  a  general  approbation,  which  may  be  given  in  a  few 
words,  the  article  will  contain  more  from  the  author  of  it  than 
from  ourselves;  this,  if  any  excuse  is  needful  for  enabling  our 
Readers,  in  some  measure  to  judge  for  themselves,  is  pleaded  as 
an  apology  for  our  copious  extracts  from  these  excellent  letters."  ^ 

The  Tory  view  was  expressed  in  the  Critical  Revidw  as  follows: — 

''The  work  before  us  is  seditious  in  its  principles,  superficial 
in  its  execution,  and  tending  to  the  perdition  of  the  country  for 
which  its  author  is  so  furious  an  advocate."  2 

John  Dickinson  by  these  essays  and  other  political  writings  ^ 
won  for  himself  the  name  of  ''Penman  of  the  Revolution/' 
and  has  been  termed  the  greatest  colonial  essayist.^  It  is  true 
that  for  setting  forth  his  precepts  of  moderation  in  a  style,  clear, 
concise  and  pleasing  he  deserves  remembrance  and  praise, 
srfmuei  Another  writer  to  assume  the  character  of  a  Farmer, 

Seabury.  ^ut  ou  the  Loyalist  side,  was  Samuel  Seabury,  who 
wrote  a  series  of  essays  over  the  signature  of  "Westchester 
Farmer,"  opposing  from  a  farmer's  standpoint  the  measures 
adopted  by  the  Continental  Congress,  and  prophesying  calamity 
if  the  attitude  of  the  Americans  toward  England  were  not  changed. 
Of  all  the  Loyalist  essayists,  Seabury  easily  ranks  first.  Though 
history  has  proved  the  falsity  of  his  logic  and  the  futility  of  his 
purpose,  his  pamphlets  remain  readable  and  interesting.  His 
language  was  forceful,  genuine  English ;  his  style  scintillated  with 
cutting  epithets,  quick  satire  and  well-timed  humor;  his  argu- 
ments were  brilliant  and  to  the  point.  The  reader  soon  determines 
the  reason  for  the  influence  which  these  essays  exerted  in  their  own 
time.^ 

1  The  Monthly  Review,  Vol.  LIX,  p.  18. 

2  The  Critical  Review,  Vol.  XXVI,  p.  62. 

3  Dickinson  drafted  the  "Resolutions  in  Relation  to  the  Stamp  Act,"  the 
"Declaration  of  Rights,"  "The  Petition  to  the  King,"  and  wrote  the  "Essay 
on  the  Constitutional  Power  of  Great  Britain  over  the  Colonies  in  America," 
the  "Address  of  Congress  to  the  Inhabitants  of  the  Province  of  Quebec,"  the 
"Declaration  by  the  Representatives  of  the  United  Colonies  of  North  America, 
setting  forth  the  causes  and  necessity  of  their  taking  up  arms,"  and  the  first 
draft  of  the  "Articles  of  Confederation." 

*  Magazine  of  American  History.    Vol.  X,  p.  223. 

'  Other  Loyalist  essajdsts  were  Joseph  Galloway,  Daniel  Leonard,  Joseph 
Stansbury  and  Jonathan  Odell. 


40  Graduate  School  Publications. 

Thomas  Thomas  Paine,  as  a  political  essayist,  succeeded 

Paine.  John  Dickinson  when  the  latter's  popularity  began 

to  diminish  in  his  own  times.  Opposed  to  the  moderation  of 
Dickinson,  Paine  became  the  great  literary  agitator  of  the  Revo- 
lution. On  January  9,  1776,  Paine  published  his  Common 
Sense,  a  document  unadorned  by  literary  graces,  but  with  a 
style  well  fitted  to  its  content,  powerful  and  wonderful  in  the 
effect  which  it  wrought  upon  the  minds  of  the  common  people, 
whom,  by  its  homely,  blunt  reason  and  strong  patriotic  princi- 
ples, it  reached  and  influenced  more  potently  than  any  skilful 
and  ornate  production  could  have  done.  In  December,  1776, 
during  the  darkest  hours  of  the  Revolution,  Paine  began  to  issue  a 
series  known  as  the  Crisis.  It  was  the  force  and  power  of  such 
expressions  as  the  following  which  made  the  works  of  Thomas 
Paine  rank  as  classics  of  their  kind. 

''These  are  the  times  that  try  men's  souls.  The  summer  sol- 
dier and  the  sunshine  patriot  will,  in  this  crisis,  shrink  from  the 
service  of  his  country;  but  he  that  stands  it  now,  deserves  the 
love  and  thanks  of  man  and  woman.  Tyranny,  like  hell,  is  not 
easily  conquered;  yet  we  have  this  consolation  with  us,  that  the 

^rder  the  conflict,  the  more  glorious  the  triumph."  ^ 

''Our  union,  well  and  wisely  regulated  and  cemented,  is  the 
cheapest  way  of  being  great — the  easiest  way  of  being  powerful, 
and  the  happiest  invention  in  government  which  the  circum- 
stances of  America  can  admit  of.  ...  I  ever  feel  myself 
hurt  when  I  hear  the  union,  that  great  palladium  of  our  liberty 
and  safety,  the  least  irreverently  spoken  of.  It  is  the  most 
sacred  thing  in  the  constitution  of  America,  and  that  which  every 
man  should  be  most  proud  and  tender  of.  Our  citizenship  in 
the  United  States  is  our  national  character.  Our  citizenship 
in  any  particular  State  is  only  our  local  distinction.  By  the 
latter  we  are  known  at  home,  by  the  former  to  the  world.  Our 
great  title  is  AMERICANS. "^ 

other  These  men,  Dickinson,  Seabury  and  Paine  were  the 

Pouticai  greatest  of  the  essayists  whose  contributions  cover  the 

ssayists.  ygars  of  actual  warfare.  There  were  others  whose 
works  seemed  important  in  their  own  days,  but  whose  literary 
fame  has  been  less  enduring.  Samuel  Adams  contributed  a  great 
mass  of  political  essays  to  various  newspapers  over  various  sig- 

^,Thfl  Pfflitical  Writings  of  Thomas  Paine,  Boston,  1870.     Vol.  I,  p.  75. 
2  Ihid.,  p.  259. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  41 

natures,^  and  these  fulfilled  their  author's  intention  that  they 
should  be  read  by  many  but  recognized  by  few  as  his  work. 
They  were  of  great  interest  and  widely  popular  at  the  time  they 
appeared.  John  Adams  published  in  the  Boston  Gazette  in  1765 
a  series  of  essays  inspired  by  the  enforcement  of  the  Stamp  Act. 
Later,  in  1775,  he  wrote  a  series  of  essays  over  the  signature 
"Novanglus,"  ^  in  reply  to  the  brilliant  essays  of  the  Loyalist, 
Daniel  Leonard,  who  as  "Massachusettensis,"  was  upholding 
the  Tory  principles.  The  essays  of  ''Novanglus"  were  widely 
read  and  published  in  England  and  on  the  Continent.  They 
were  strong  in  argument,  but  exhibit  imperfections  and  weak- 
nesses in  style  and  method. 

The  The  American  political  essays  of  the  period  of  which 

FederaUst.  ^jjjg  chapter  treats  reached  their  highest  expression 
in  the  series  known  as  the  Federalist.  No  sooner  was  the 
Revolutionary  controversy  ended  than  a  new  one  began,  for  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution  was  preceded  by  long  and  spirited 
debate.  On  the  side  of  the  established  government  were  Thomas 
Jefferson,  Patrick  Henry  and  Samuel  Adams,  and  advocating 
the  adoption  of  the  constitution  were  James  Madison,  John  Jay 
and  Alexander  Hamilton  as  leaders,  supported  by  John  Adams, 
George  Washington,  Thomas  Paine,  Albert  Gallatin,  John  Mar- 
shall and  Joseph  Story.  It  was  Madison,  Jay  and  Hamilton 
who  voiced  the  sentiments  of  their  party  in  eighty-five  short 
essays  ^  which  became  known  as  the  Federalist.  Over  the 
common  signature  of  ''Publius"  these  three  men  presented 
their  forceful  arguments  in  favor  of  the  Constitution,  and  in 
doing  so  gave  utterance  to  statements  universal  and  lasting  in 
their  application.  Their  style  was  so  clear  as  to  be  easily  com- 
prehended by  every  citizen  to  whom  they  were  addressed.  At 
the  same  time,  it  is  a  style  far  removed  from  that  of  the  colonial 
writers.  The  men  who  wrote  the  Federalist  were  no  longer 
provincials.  They  were  American  statesmen  and  stood  shoulder 
to  shoulder  with  the  world's  foremost  thinkers  and  writers,  as  is 
manifested  in  a  style  marked  by  a  rhythmical  balance,  and  a  purity 
and  polish  matching  that  of  the  best  English  writers,  but  at  the 

1  His  disguises  have  never  yet  been  numbered.  He  wrote  over  the  signatures 
of  "AKred,"  "A  Son  of  Liberty,"  "A  Bostonian,"  "An  Imperialist,"  "A," 
"A.  B.,"  "E.  A.,"  "Z,"  "Populus,"  "Sincerus,"  etc. 

^Boston  Gazette,  January  23 — April  17,  1775. 

*  First  published  in  the  Independent  Gazeteer  of  New  York,  1787-1788. 


42  Graduate  School  Publications. 

same  time  exhibiting  the  positiveness  and  directness  which  char- 
acterizes all  our  great  constitutional  documents  as  American. 
It  is  Johnsonian  English — invigorated  and  freshened  by  a  new 
atmosphere. 

other  Essays  The  appearance  of  so  many  excellent  political 
of  the  period,  essays  in  a  period  devoted  to  strife  and  confusion  is 
not  surprising,  but  it  seems  remarkable  that  the  same  season  of 
Sturm  und  Drang  should  also  have  produced  a  large  mass  of  the 
literature  of  entertainment.  It  is  hard  to  draw  the  line  between 
the  two  classes  of  writings,  for  at  this  time  there  were  authors 
who  devoted  their  talents  to  the  furtherance  of  the  patriotic 
cause,  and  at  the  same  time  produced  other  literature  which  was 
entirely  independent  of  the  Revolutionary  movement.  It  is 
customary  to  believe  that  a  period  of  warfare  or  political  unrest 
must  be  an  era  of  aesthetic  stagnation,  but  the  converse  is  often 
true,  for  the  same  emotional  quickening  which  moves  a  nation 
to  a  great  political  upheaval,  arouses  and  stimulates  men  to  re- 
newed intellectual  efforts.  Thus  we  are  able  to  account  for  the 
more  purely  literary  essays  which  this  period  produced.  It  is  true 
that  many  of  these  essays  seem  crude  and  immature,  but  this  is 
not  so  surprising  as  the  fact  that  such  writings  were  attempted 
at  all  in  times  so  unfavorable  to  art  and  culture.  Among 
many  inferior  essayists,  the  works  of  a  few  stand  out  as  worthy 
of  notice  and  remembrance.  Three  of  these  essayists,  Francis 
Hopkinson,  Philip  Freneau^and  John  Trumbull  won  an  enduring 
fame  as  the  great  Whig  satirists  of  the  Revolution;  but  in  the 
field  of  the  Essay,  they  also  deserve  mention. 
Francis  Francis    Hopkinson's   first    essay  won    more    dis- 

Hopkinson.  tiuctiou  than  usually  crowns  a  young  man's  first 
attempts,  for,  having  been  written  in  competition  for  the  prize 
medal  offered  by  John  Sargent  of  London  to  the  graduate  of  the 
College  of  Philadelphia  who  should  write  the  best  essay  on  the 
subject  "Reciprocal  Advantage  of  a  Perpetual  Union  between 
Great  Britain  and  her  American  Colonies,"  Hopkinson's  essay, 
with  three  others,  was  published  both  in  Philadelphia  and 
London.  His  political  writings,  many  of  them  in  verse,  are  well 
known  to  students  of  American  literature.  Many  of  his  prose 
writings  are  in  the  form  of  brief  and  disjointed  satirical  efforts, 
but  he  was,  during  his  entire  life,  a  devotee  of  art,  with  a  zeal  for 
reform,  especially  in  education,  apropos  of  which  he  published  an 
admirable   satirical   essay,  Modern  Learning  Exemplified  by  a 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  43 

Specimen  of  a  College  Examination,^  in  which  he  burlesqued  the 
contemporary  methods  of  examination.  Many  of  the  essays 
which  Hopkinson  contributed  to  the  newspapers  were  unsigned  ^ 
and  it  is  chiefly  through  the  medium  of  his  own  collection  of  his 
miscellaneous  essays  that  we  are  able  to  identify  them.  In  his 
more  serious  vein  he  wrote  An  Improved  Plan  of  Education, 
The  Ambiguity  of  the  English  Language  and  On  Adversity. 
In  the  manner  of  the  Spectator  was  the  series  known  as  ''The  Old 
Bachelor."  Hopkinson's  greatest  excellence  was  in  his  playful, 
satirical  effects.  Even  in  his  essays,  it  is  the  ingenuity  and  odd 
conceits  rather  than  any  grace  of  expression,  which  delights  the 
reader. 

Philip  A  more  bitter  satirist  was  Philip  Freneau,  remem- 

Freneau.  bcred  chicfly  as  America's  first  poet.  Freneau  was  a 
prolific  journalist,  and  in  the  capacity  of  contributor  or  editor, 
wrote  many  essays  for  various  newspapers  and  journals.^  The 
prose  style  of  Freneau  was  clear  and  unaffected,  and  free  of  the 
pedantry  of  many  of  his  fellow-essayists.  Among  the  best  of  his 
essays  were  his  Letters  by  Robert  Slender,  O.S.M.'^  from  which  I 
quote  extracts  of  his  "Advice  to  Young  Authors." 

"In  a  country,  which  two  hundred  years  ago  was  peopled  only 
by  savages,  and  where  the  government  has  ever,  in  effect,  since 
the  first  establishment  of  the  white  men  in  these  parts,  been  no 
other  than  republican,  it  is  really  wonderful  there  should  be  any 
polite  original  authors  at  all  in  any  line,  especially  when  it  is 
considered  that  according  to  the  common  course  of  things,  any 
particular  nation  or  people  must  have  arrived  to,  or  rather 
passed  their  meridian  of  opulence  and  refinement,  before  they 
consider  the  professors  of  the  fine  arts  in  any  other  light  than  a 
nuisance  to  the  community.  This  is  evidently  the  case  in  our 
age  and  country;  all  you  have  to  do  then,  my  good  friends,  is  to 
graft  your  authorship  upon  some  calling,  or  support  drooping 
genius  by  the  assistance  of  some  mechanical  employment  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  helpless  ivy  takes  hold  of  the  vigorous  oak, 

1  Miscellaneous  Essays  and  Occasional  Writings  of  Francis  Hopkinson, 
Philadelphia.     1792.    Vol.  II,  p.  349-422. 

2  He  wrote  for  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette  (1774r-1776),  the  New  Jersey  Chroni- 
cle and  the  Pennsylvania  Packet. 

3  The  United  States  Magazine  (1779) ;  The  Freeman's  Journal;  or  the  North 
American  Intelligencer  (1781-1789),  The  National  Gazette  (1791-1793);  The 
Jersey  Chronicle  (1795-1796) ;  The  Time-Piece;  and  Literary  Companion  (1797- 
1798) ;  The  Pennsylvania  Packet  and  Daily  Advertiser  (1782-1788). 

*  "One  of  the  Swinish  Multitude." 


44  Graduate  School  Publications. 

and  cleaves  to  it  for  support — I  mean  to  say  in  plain  language 
that  you  may  make  something  by  weaving  garters  or  mending 
old  nails,  when  an  Epic  would  be  your  destruction." 

"As  to  those  Authors  who  have  lately  exported  themselves 
from  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  boast  that  they  have  introduced 
the  Muses  among  us  since  the  conclusion  of  the  late  war,  I  really 
believe  them  to  be  a  very  good-natured  set  of  gentlemen,  not- 
withstanding they,  in  the  course  of  the  last  winter,  called  me 
Poetaster  and  scribbler  and  some  other  names  still  more  unsavory. 

They  are  however  excusable  in  treating  the  American  authors 
as  inferior;  a  political  and  literary  independence  of  their  nation 
being  two  very  different  things — the  first  was  accomplished  in 
about  seven  years,  the  latter  will  not  be  completely  effected, 
perhaps,  in  many  centuries.  It  is  my  opinion,  nevertheless  that 
a  duty  ought  to  be  laid  upon  all  imported  authors,  the  net  pro- 
ceeds of  which  should  be  appropriated  to  the  benefit  of  real  Ameri- 
can writers,  w^hen  become  old  and  helpless,  and  no  longer  able 
to  wield  the  pen  to  advantage." 

John  The  third  satirist,  John  Trumbull,  was  early  in 

Trumbuu.  jjfg^  gQ  inspired  with  enthusiasm  for  the  English  essay- 
ists, that  during  his  senior  year  in  Yale  College,  he  attempted 
a  series  of  essays  in  the  tone  of  Addison  and  Steele.  These 
essays,  with  the  title  of  ''The  Meddler,"  were  contributed  to  the 
"^  Boston  Chronicle,^  and  in  them  Trumbull  censured  certain  social 
and  educational  errors  of  his  day,  and  at  the  same  time  endeavored 
to  provide  entertainment  and  diversion  for  his  readers.  The 
fifth  essay  of  the  series  introduced  ''The  Schemer"  who  added 
liveliness  and  humor  to  the  collection.  TrumbulFs  gift  of  satire 
which  he  was  later  to  devote  to  the  patriot's  cause  became  evi- 
dent even  in  these  early  essays.  The  third  of  the  series  ^  is  an 
example  of  this  satirical  trend.  It  purports  to  be  an  advertise- 
ment provided  for  a  young  woman  who  had  conducted  four 
annual  campaigns  for  a  husband. 

"Advertisement, 
To  be  Sold  at  Public  Vendue, 
The  whole  Estate  of 
Isabella  Sprightly,  Toast  and  Coquette, 
(Now  retiring  from  Business) . 
Imprimis,  all  the  Tools  and  Utensils  necessary  for  carrying 
on  the  Trade,  viz.     Several  bundles  of  Darts  and  Arrows,  well- 
pointed  and  capable  of  doing  great  execution;  A  considerable 

1 1769-1770. 

2  The  Boston  Chronicle,  October  23-26,  1769. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  45 

quantity  of  Patches,  Paint,  Brushes  and  Cosmetics,  for  plastering, 
painting  and  whitewashing  the  face;  a  complete  set  of  caps,  a  la 
mode  a  Paris,  of  all  sizes  from  five  to  fifteen  inches  in  height; 
With  several  dozens  of  Cupids,  very  proper  to  be  stationed  on  a 
ruby  lip,  a  diamond  eye  or  a  roseate  cheek. 

Item,  as  she  proposes  by  certain  ceremonies  to  transform  one 
of  her  humble  servants  into  an  husband,  and  keep  him  for  her 
own  use,  she  offers  for  sale,  Florio,  Daphnis,  Cynthio  and  Clean- 
thes,  with  several  others,  whom  she  won  by  a  constant  attendance 
on  business  during  the  space  of  four  years.  She  can  prove  her 
indisputable  right  thus  to  dispose  of  them,  by  certain  deeds  of 
gifts,  bills  of  sale,  and  attestations,  vulgarly  called  love-letters, 
under  their  own  hands  and  seals.  They  will  be  offered  very  cheap 
for  they  are  all  of  them  either  broken-hearted,  consumptive  or 
in  a  dying  condition.  Nay,  some  of  them  have  been  dead  this 
half  year,  as  they  declare  and  testify  in  the  above-mentioned 
writings. 

N.B.     Their  Hearts  will  be  sold  separately." 

The  series  abounds  in  sparkling  sayings  and  pointed  epigrams, 
one  of  which  I  quote  from  the  last  essay,  as  a  prose  illustration 
of  the  same  tendencies  which  made  his  poem  M'Fingal  so 
popular. 

^*  There  is  no  figure  more  employed  by  the  present  race  of  wits 
and  satirists  than  the  Periphasis,  or  in  modern  language,  the 
circumbendibus.  To  call  a  man  a  hog,  is  by  no  means  allow- 
able but  if  we  exalt  the  expression,  and  say  he  is  that  animal  be- 
fore which  we  are  commanded  not  to  throw  pearls,  it  becomes 
extremely  witty,  polite  and  delicate,  and  may  be  used  by  a  Doctor 
of.  Divinity  with  the  greatest  facility  and  pleasure."  ^ 

His  next  series  of  essays  "The  Correspondent"  appeared  in 
The  Connecticut  Journal  and  New  Haven  Post  Boy.  These  also 
were  framed  after  the  Spectator  style,  and  like  his  models,  he 
succeeded  in  concealing  his  serious  purpose  of  mending  the  man- 
ners and  morals  of  his  readers  under  the  playfulness  of  his  ex- 
pressions. In  these  essays,  Trumbull  ridiculed  the  dogmatic 
writers  of  his  day,  and  one  number  was  aimed  at  disclosing  the 
hypocrisy  of  certain  avowed  philanthropists  and  Christians 
whose  chief  source  of  wealth  was  the  slave  trade.  A  second 
series  of  "The  Correspondent"  appeared  in  the  same  paper  in 
1773  and  1774.2 

1  The  Boston  Chronicle,    January,  18-22,  1772. 

•  Trumbull  also  wrote  "An  Essay  on  the  Use  and  Advantages  of  the  Fine 
Arts,"  delivered  at  the  Yale  commencement  in  1770.  Moses  Coit  Tyler 
mentions  a  series  of  seven  "Speculative  Essays"  but  these  are  only  available 
in  manuscript,     cf .  Literary  History  of  the  Americari  Revolution,  Vol.  2,  p.  211. 


46  Graduate  School  Publications. 

Trumbull's  fame  as  a  satirist  in  verse  has  diverted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  average  reader  from  his  prose  writings,  but  his  essays 
deserve  a  special  place  in  the  study  of  the  Essay  in  American 
^literature,  for  they  exhibit  an  urbanity  of  style,  a  perspective 
'  of  vision,  and  a  scholarly  moderation  not  traceable  in  any  pre- 
vious American  essays,  but  distinctive  of  the  period  that  was  to 
follow. 

^jjj^j^g  Another  writer  of  this  period  who  won  fame  in  a 

Brockden  field  Other  than  that  of  the  essay  was  Charles  Brock- 
Brown.  ^^^  Brown,  the  first  American  novelist.  Brown,  at 
various  items  in  his  life,  was  a  writer  of  essays,  contributing  "  The 
Rhapsodist"  to  the  Columbian  Magazine  in  1789,  and  various 
essays  to  The  Weekly  Magazine  of  Original  Essays,  Fugitive 
Pieces  and  Interesting  Intelligence,  in  1798  and  1799.  Later  in 
his  life,  he  wrote  essays  for  various  periodicals  which  he  edited,^ 
and  among  them  many  reviews  which  aimed  to  educate  the  middle 
classes  and  cultivate  among  them  a  taste  for  serious  literature. 
Joseph  Among  the  many  writers  whose  essays  were  sub- 
Dennie,  the  Ordinate  to  their  accomplishments  in  other  departures 
Lay  Preacher.  ^^  literature,  it  is  pleasaut  to  find  in  this  period  one 
man  who  is  remembered  solely  as  an  essayist.  One  of  the  most 
successful  American  journahsts  of  his  day  was  Joseph  Dennie, 
the  "Lay  Preacher,''  which  appropriate  title  was  first  assumed  by 
him  because  of  an  incident  in  his  early  life.  Dennie  had  been 
inclined  to  make  the  ministry  his  profession,  but  gave  it  up,  as 
^  he  said,  "because  of  its  starchedness  of  thinking  and  behaviour." 
However,  while  reading  law  in  New  Hampshire,  he  was  called 
upon  to  read  the  liturgy  and  lay  sermons  during  several  months 
when  the  Episcopal  church  of  his  town  was  without  a  pastor. 
Growing  weary  of  reading  other  men's  sermons,  he  began  to  add 
short  paragraphs  of  his  own,  and  at  length  ventured  to  preach 
lay  sermons  which  were  entirely  original.  Later  he  was  severely 
criticised  for  so  doing  and  eventually  he  turned  from  both  theology 
and  law  and  became  a  man-of-letters. 

In  1793  he  wrote  for  the  New  Hampshire  Journal;  or  The  Far- 

*  The  Monthly  Magazine  and  American  Review.  New  York.  1779-1780. 
The  American  Review  and  Literary  Journal  for  the  Year.  New  York,  1801. 
The  Literary  Magazine  and  American  Register.  Philadelphia,  1803-1807. 
The  American  Register  or  General  Repository  of  History,  Politics  and  Science. 
Philadelphia,  1806-1810. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  47 

mer^s  Museum,^  a  series  of  essays  known  as  ''The  Farrago.'* 
These  were  witty  and  well  written  and  his  fame  as  their  author 
contributed  to  his  later  success.  In  1796,  Dennie  became  editor 
of  The  Farmer's  Weekly  Museum  mentioned  above,  which  under 
his  skilful  management,  despite  an  occasional  financial  crisis, 
attained  great  success  and  popularity.  From  the  same  press, 
Dennie  pubUshed  the  first  volume  of  ''The  Lay  Pi:eacher."  In 
explanation  of  the  title  the  following  Preface  is  inserted  in  the 
later  collection  of  the  Lay  Sermons  made  by  John  E.  Hall.^ 

"As  the  title  of  this  work  may  appear  ludicrous  to  some,  and 
be  obscure  to  others ;  as  may  start  at  the  word  Preacher,  and  may 
sneer  at  a  Lay  man  tampering  with  theology — it  is  proper  to  state 
that  this  is  not  a  volume  of  sermons.  It  is  a  series  of  essays, 
modelled  after  the  designs  of  Addison  and  the  harmless  and  play- 
ful levity  of  Oliver  Goldsmith.  The  mottoes  are  copied  from  the 
oriental  writings;  but  they  are  either  a  moral  lesson,  an  economical 
precept,  or  a  biographical  picture.  The  topics  to  which  they  are 
prefixed  are  didactic,  descriptive,  or  airy  as  the  gravity  or  the 
humour  of  the  hour  prompted.  On  the  fenced  and  walled,  and 
hallowed  ground  of  religion,  the  author  has  never  presumed  to 
trench." 

It  was  by  these  Lay  Sermons  that  Dennie  won  so  great  a  repu- 
tation in  his  own  day  and  deserves  mention  in  any  study  of 
American  essays.  The  Sermons  are  certainly  unique.  Dennie 
seemed  to  have  a  gift  of  choosing  from  the  Bible  a  text  that  was 
remarkably  appropriate  to  his  subject  and  then  producing  a  "ser-        / 

mon"  which  was  not  a  sermon,  but  a  brief,  pointed  essay,  with 

gravity  and  lightness,  wisdom  and  wit  so  mingled  that  the  reader 
is  often  at  aTIoss  to  know  whether  the  author  meant  to  censure 
or  amuse.  With  admirable  skill  he  avoided  all  grounds  for  a 
charge  of  irreverence  in  his  use  of  Bible  themes,  never  treating 
them  with  levity,  but  letting  them  illuminate  his  own  meditations, 
and  applying  them  to  the  life  of  his  own  times  in  a  manner  that 
was  novel  and  interesting.  As  illustration  I  shall  insert  two  of  his 
Lay  Sermons. 

On  Meditation. 

"Commune  with  your  own  heart  upon  your  bed,  and  be  still." 
Psalms,  IV-4. 

Having,  in  my  last  speculation,  attempted  to  describe  some 

1  Published  at  Walpole,  New  Hampshire,  1793-1797.  In  1795  Dennie  con- 
tributed another  series  of  "The  Farrago"  to  The  Tablet,  published  in  Boston. 

2  Tfw  Lay  Preacher  by  Joseph  Dennie.  Collected  and  arranged  by  John 
E.  Hall,  Philadelphia,  1817. 


48  Graduate  School  Publications. 

of  the  delights  of  study,  in  this  paper  it  is  proposed  to  consider 
the  true  use  of  retirement.  Between  them  there  should  be  a  per- 
petual alliance :  nay,  they  are  not  only  neighbouring  and  friendly 
powers,  but  they  are  familiar  connexions.  Amiable,  interesting 
and  lovely  sisters!  if  your  worthy  admirer  be  attracted  by  the 
riches  of  one,  he  will  quickly  be  delighted  with  the  pensiveness 
of  the  other.  Study  will  give  him  all  her  books,  and  retirement 
conduct  him  to  all  her  bowers.  In  no  ramble,  will  he  experience 
more  delight  than  when  he  roves  through  the  healthful  woods, 
or  saunters  through  the  tranquil  cloister,  with  retirement  on  his 
right  hand  and  study  on  his  left.  Though  their  guise  is  exceed- 
ingly modest,  though  their  conversation  has  no  resemblance  to 
loquacity,  though  their  best  attire  is  from  no  other  wardrobe 
than  that  of  sweet  simplicity,  still  they  will  always  gain  more 
regard  from  the  wiser,  than  all  the  pageants  of  the  pompous, 
and  all  the  plumage  of  the  vain. 

The  royal  Psalmist,  from  whose  divine  odes,  I  have  transcribed 
my  text,  was  himself  a  memorable  example  of  the  utility  of  re- 
tirement, reflection  and  self  communion.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  he  was  a  warrior,  a  statesman,  a  man  of  business  and  a  man 
of  the  world.  In  these  various  characters,  though  he  often  ac- 
quitted himself  exceedingly  well,  yet  unfortunately,  in  some  fla- 
grant instances,  we  perceive  how  much  he  was  tainted  by  the 
infection  of  the  world.  But  when  he  shuts  his  eyes  against  the 
glare  of  ambition,  and  the  gaze  of  beauty,  when  he  ceases  to  touch 
the  harp  of  fascination,  and  forsakes  the  cabinet  and  the  camp, 
then  we  recognize,  at  once,  the  scholar,  the  philosopher  and  the 
poet.  In  the  strong  holds  at  En-gedi,  he  is  a  mere  soldier;  in  the 
palace  of  Saul,  a  servile  musician;  in  the  cave  at  AduUam,  a 
skulking  fugitive;  and  in  the  forests  of  Hareth,  an  unhappy  exile. 
But  when  he  tore  himself  away  from  the  thraldom  of  care,  the 
bustle  of  business  and  the  din  of  Jerusalem,  when  he  wandered 
away  by  the  brooks  of  the  fields,  or  the  plains  of  the  wilderness, 
when  he  retired  to  his  chamber,  and  communed  with  his  heart, 
then  he  formed  those  noble  associations,  and  composed  those 
exquisite  performances,  which  will  transmit  his  name  with  re- 
nown to  the  remotest  posterity. 

My  Lord  Bacon,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Erasmus,  Grotius,  Mr. 
Addison  and  Mr  Locke,  together  with  a  great  multitude  of 
illustrious  men,  have  been  deeply  involved  in  the  cares  of  public 
business,  as  well  as  engrossed  by  the  meditations  of  the  closet. 
But  for  the  fairest  portion  of  their  glorious  fame,  how  much  are 
they  indebted  to  the  latter!  While  the  chancery  decrees  of  Sir 
Francis  Bacon  moulder  away  in  the  hands  of  some  master  of  the 
rolls,  the  experiments  of  his  study,  and  the  essays  of  his  wit, 
like  certain  exquisite  paintings,  grow  brighter  by  time.  While 
we  peruse  with  still  renewing  pleasure,  Raleigh's  history  of  the 
world,  his  unlucky  politics  are  scarcely  regarded.  Mr.  Addison 
was  secretary  of  state,  and  Grotius  was  an  ambassador;  but  who 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  49 

enquires  for  the  despatches  of  the  one,  or  is  interested  in  the 
negotiations  of  the  other?  The  fame  of  Erasmus,  constantly- 
immersed  in  the  turmoil  of  his  times,  and  engrossed  by  cares, 
civil  and  ecclesiastic,  would  have  perished  with  the  names  of 
those  miserable  monks,  whom  he  has  derided,  or  those  imperious 
princes  whom  he  has  courted.  But  by  sometimes  wisely  with- 
drawing himself  from  the  cabals  of  a  court,  and  the  polemics  of 
the  church,  by  meditating  on  horseback,  and  in  his  chamber,  by 
avarice  of  time,  by  intenseness  of  application,  and  ardour  of 
genius,  he  has  filled  ten  folios,  composed  in  the  purest  Latinity, 
where  an  indolent  reader  can  find  nothing  too  prolix,  and  where  a 
critical  reader  can  discover  nothing  to  reprehend.  The  foolish 
politics  of  Addison  are  scarcely  remembered  even  by  his  faction. 
The  character  of  Locke,  is  painted  with  no  other  pencils  than 
those  of  ridicule  as  a  man  of  business,  and  the  diplomacy  of  Gro- 
tius,  and  of  Sir  William  Temple  are  utterly  contemned;  but  their 
literary  and  philosophical  works,  the  beauteous  offspring  of  re- 
tirement and  study,  will  continue  to  charm. 

''Till  Time,  like  him  of  Gaza,  in  his  wrath. 
Plucking  the  pillars  that  support  the  world, 
In  nature's  ample  ruins  lies  entombed. 
And  midnight,  universal  midnight,  reigns.'' 

Though  in  the  text  we  are  admonished  to  commune  with  our- 
selves, in  our  chamber,  yet,  it  would  be  a  very  partial  and  narrow 
interpretation,  if  it  were  concluded  that  we  could  not  meditate 
anywhere  else.  The  secrecy  of  a  closet,  and  the  stillness  of  mid- 
night, are,  unquestionably,  propitious  to  the  powers  of  reflection. 
But  other  places  and  seasons  may  be  selected  for  that  salutory 
discipline,  which  the  Psalmist  recommends.  It  is  a  vulgar  error 
to  suppose,  that  retirement  and  contemplation  are  never  to  be 
found,  except  in  a  forest  or  desert,  a  cell  or  a  cloister.  In  the 
thronged  mart,  and  in  the  blaze  of  day,  he  who  has  inured  himself 
to  habits  of  abstraction,  may  commune^with  himself,  as  though  he 
was  in  his  chamber — Proofs  of  this  abound  in  many  a  page  in  the 
records  of  literature.  Some  of  the  fairest  displays  of  self-knowl- 
edge, some  of  the  finest  results  of  meditation,  some  of  the  sweetest 
fruits  of  retirement  owed  their  appearance  not  to  the  tran- 
quility of  sylvan  groves.  In  many  a  metropolis  with  the  din  of 
commerce,  and  crowded  with  the  throngs  of  nations  contemplation 
has  had  her  fill.  Though  a  sublime  poet,  in  a  fit  of  rural  enthu- 
siasm has  exclaimed. 

Hide  me  from  Day's  garish  eye, 

yet  it  would  be  alike  dangerous  and  delusive  to  believe,  that  we 
cannot  speculate  at  noon,  as  well  as  at  night.  In  short,  the 
choice  of  time  or  place  is  not  essential,  to  the  formation  of  habits 
of  self-sequestration,  and  the  acquisition  of  the  precious  power  of 
-withdrawing  the  mind  from  all  external  objects 


50  Graduate  School  Puhlications. 

As,  in  Dr.  Johnson's  phrase,  I  am  often  wakefully  disturbed 
at  midnight,  and  as  I  have  not  wholly  forgotten  my  boyish  attach- 
ment to  woods  and  meadows,  I  acknowledge  that  I  often  commune 
with  myself,  in  my  chamber,  by  the  banks  of  a  romantic  river,  or 
in  the  recesses  of  a  lonely  forest.  I  have  already  speculated 
twice  on  the  profit  and  pleasure  producible  by  nocturnal  hours, 
wisely  employed,  and  rural  rambles,  judiciously  directed.  But 
for  a  period  of  no  inconsiderable  duration,  I  have  often  retired 
to  rest  at  a  vulgar  hour,  and  have  wholly  exchanged  the  country 
for  the  city.  Change  of  circumstances  demanded  new  habits. 
Though  but  seldom  I  wind  slowly  o'er  the  lea;  though  the  glim- 
mering landscape  but  rarely  fades  before  my  sight;  and  my  ears 
generally  listen  to  other  sounds  than  the  drowsy  tinklings  of  a 
shepherd's  bell,  yet  it  is  my  duty  to  reflect  much,  even  in  the  midst 
of  confusion.  Accordingly,  I  commune  with  my  own  heart, 
in  the  crowd,  and  can  be  still,  even  in  the  street.  I  sermonize, 
in  the  suburbs,  and  find  apt  alliteration  in  an  alley.  I  start  a 
topic  in  High  Street,  and  hunt  it  down  as  far  as  Southwark,  or 
the  Northern  Liberties.  I  walk  through  the  market  place,  as 
I  once  wandered  in  a  wood ;  and  while  one  is  talking  of  his  farm, 
and  another  of  his  merchandise,  I  listen  to  the  suggestions  of 
fancy,  or  invoke  the  cherub  contemplation. 

But  to  return  to  a  more  rigourous  exposition  of  the  text,  and 
consider  it  merely  as  an  exhortation  to  the  tranquil  exercise  of 
our  mental  powers,  in  the  retirement  of  the  closet,  I  do  not  know 
whether  in  the  pages  of  any  philosopher,  I  could  find  a  better  les- 
son of  salutory  discipline.  It  is  favourable  to  the  culture  of 
intellectual,  as  well  as  moral  habits.  He,  who  accustoms  him- 
self in  closet  meditations,  will  not  only  purify  his  heart,  but 
correct  his  judgement,  form  his  taste,  exercise  his  memory,  and 
regulate  his  imagination.  Moreover,  he  then  has  an  admirable 
opportunity  to  view  the  world,  at  a  due  distance,  to  form  a  de- 
liberate estimate  of  life,  to  calculate,  with  precision,  the  propor- 
tion of  his  own  powers,  combined  with  those  of  other  men,  and 
having  weighed  himself;  as  it  were  in  the  ''balance  of  sanctuary, " 
to  find  new  causes  for  regret,  and  new  reasons  for  reformation. 

To  multitudes,  solitude,  retirement  and  reflection,  appear  in  a 
form  more  horrid  than  the  weird  sisters  in  Shakespeare.  The 
man  of  business,  the  man  of  pleasure,  the  votary  of  vanity, 
and  the  victim  of  lassitude,  all  sedulously  shun  those  hours,  which 
have  been  so  nobly  employed  by  philosophers,  poets,  hermits 
and  saints.  Dr.  Young  who  has  immortalized  his  self-communion, 
in  one  of  the  most  original  poems  in  our  language,  a  poem  not 
only  of  gorgeous  metaphors,  but  of  the  most  ardent  piety,  ex- 
claims, with  more  than  mortal  enthusiasm, 

Oh,  lost  to  virtue,  lost  to  manly  thought, 
Lost  to  the  noblest  sallies  of  the  soul! 
Who  think  it  solitude  to  be  alone, 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  51 

Communion  sweet !  communion  large  and  high ! 
Our  reason,  guardian  angel,  and  our  God!  ^ 

On  Dissapointment. 

**  Wherefore,  when  I  looked  that  it  should  bring  forth  grapes, 
brought  it  forth  wild  grapes." — Isaiah,  V.  4. 

Thus  fares  it  with  most  of  the  vineyards  of  the  world.  Dressed 
by  the  vintager,  they  promise  plausibly,  as  a  courtier.  In  the 
season  of  maturity,  what  is  the  fruit?  When  we  ''looked'' 
for  perfection,  we  found  our  hopes  mocked  with  wildness,  crudity, 
bitterness,  with  fruit  austere,  as  sloes;  or  sour,  like  the  berries 
of  the  gadding  barberry. 

The  poet  Isaiah,  for  the  prophet,  no  less  than  Homer,  merits 
the  title  of  bard,  has  beautifully  allegorized  the  common  dis- 
appointments of  man.  He  describes  his  beloved  as  the  pro- 
prietor of  a  vineyard  in  a  champaign  country.  Well  fenced,  well 
planted,  freed  from  stones,  protected  by  a  tower,  and  crowned  by 
a  wine  press;  such  a  vineyard  might  inspire  the  owner  with  the 
fondest  expectations  of  pressing  sweet  fruit,  and  of  drinking  the 
purest  nectar.  Mortified  Hebrew,  I  see  thee  walk  away  in  anguish. 
At  autumnal  noon,  thou  hast  met  the  vine  dresser,  and  he  has 
told  thee  of  blight,  and  mildew,  and  caterpillar;  that  the  grapes 
are  wild,  acid,  their  juice  vinegar,  that  the  vineyard  is  no  better 
than  a  thistle  field,  and  thy  time  and  money  wasted  with  no 
recompense — I  hear  thee  in  the  bitterness  of  thy  heart  exclaim, 
^'What  could  have  been  done  more  to  my  vineyard,  that  I  have 
not  done  in  it?"  It  is  natural.  Many  a  parent  has  spoken  in 
the  same  language,  when  hearing  of  the  sorry  adventures  of  a 
prodigal  son.  Where  men  have  lavished  wealth,  hours,  affec- 
tion, whether  in  rearing  grapes,  or  offspring,  if  either  prove  wildy 
it  is  like  a  dart  through  the  liver. 

Wild  grapes,  in  the  sense  which  the  prophet  intends,  are  "as 
plenty  as  blackberries."  Hoyden  girls,  forward  boys,  and  dis- 
sipated men,  are  all  wild  grapes.  Parents  may  dress,  and  school- 
masters prune  as  much  as  they  please;  all  culture  is  in  vain, 
where  there  is  rottenness  at  root  and  heart. 

The  banks  of  many  a  western  lake,  and  the  savannahs  of 
Georgia  and  Tennesee  have  been  converted  by  land-jobbers  into 
vineyards,  more  productive  than  those  of  Bordeaux  or  Burgundy. 
Emigrant  and  eager  vintagers  have  "looked"  for  the  fruit  of 
their  labours,  and  expected  to  behold  high  piled  baskets,  and 
flasks  by  the  dozen.  Such  vineyards  have  yielded  prodigiously; 
barren  sand  and  bankruptcy  have  been  the  wild  grapes,  which 
set  the  speculator's  teeth  on  edge.  Very  sour  unpalatable  fruit, 
too  hard  of  digestion,  even  for  an  ostrich. 

The  French  for  a  succession  of  ages,  blest  with  fertile  vine- 
yards, and  crowned  with  chaplets,  were  a  merry  people.    In  an  evil 

1  The  Lay  Preacher  by  Joseph  Dennie.  Collected  and  arranged  by  John 
E.  Hall,  Esq.  pp.  12-20. 


52  Graduate  School  Publications, 

hour,  the  rage  of  improvement  urged  them  to  grub  up  that 
mantling  vine,  which  had  so  long  proved — 

"  From  storm  a  shelter,  and  from  heat  a  shade.'' 

and  to  plant  certain  bastard  slips,  called  the  tree  of  liberty. 
Over  the  whole  kingdom  they  threw  a  shade  more  mournful,  than 
yew  or  cypress.  Great  expectations  have  been  entertained  of 
the  fruit  of  these  trees,  but,  it  is  said,  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
of  taste  declare  nothing  can  be  more  wild,  and  even  the  poor 
peasant  shakes  his  head  at  the  forced  production  and  mawkish 
flavour  of  the  fruit  of  liberty,  and  sighs  for  a  grape  or  filbert, 
from  the  gardens  of  St.  Cloud  or  the  Thuilleries.^" 

Dennie's  style  has  the  defects  of  verbosity  and  occasional 
affectation,  but  it  is  never  wearisome.  It  lacks  the  sparkle  of 
TrumbulFs  epigrams,  and  the  sententiousness  of  Franklin,  but 
his  essays  were  written  with  the  earnest  desire  to  elevate  the  lit- 
erary taste  of  his  contemporaries,  and  he  deserves  special  notice 
in  that,  of  all  the  writers  yet  considered,  he  was  the  first  to  devote- 
all  his  talents  to  the  production  of  essays. 
•'The  There  is  another  interesting  fact  in  connection  with 

Portfolio."  Joseph  Dennie,  for  it  was  he  who  in  the  year  1800, 
established  in  Philadelphia  the  Portfolio,  which  was  destined  to 
live  twenty-six  years  and  worthily  represent  a  new  American 
departure  in  the  field  of  periodicals.  The  first  Portfolio  was 
graced  with  this  appropriate  motto  from  Cowper — 

.     .     .     various  that  the  mind 
Of  desultory  man,  studious  of  change, 
And  pleased  with  novelty,  may  be  indulged. 

This  journal  became  a  repository  for  contributions  from  many 
men  prominent  in  literature,  science  and  politics.  So  strongly 
Federalist  in  sentiment  was  it  at  one  time  that  Jefferson's  friends 
designated  it  ''The  Portable  Foolery."  A  study  of  its  numbers 
reveals  many  names  and  facts  interesting  to  the  student  of  our 
American  literature.  Among  its  contributors  were  General 
Thomas  Cadwaller,  Charles  Brockden  Brown,  Joseph  Hopkinson, 
John  Blair  Linn,  John  Sanderson,  Governeur  Morris  and  Mrs. 
Sarah  E.  Hall.  The  ''Letters  from  Silesia"  by  John  Quincy 
Adams  first  appeared  in  the  Portfolio  and  were  afterwards  printed 
in  London  and  translated  into  German  and  French.  Thomas 
Moore,  during  his  visit  to  Philadelphia,  became  a  friend  of  Dennie 

1  The  Lay  Preacher  by  Joseph  Dennie.  Collected  and  arranged  by  John 
E.  Hall,  Esq.,  pp.  93-96. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  53 

and  a  contributor  to  the  Portfolio.     Thus  this  periodical  became 
one  of  the  best  of  this  period  and  endured  well  into  the  next.^ 

Even  the  shorter  lived  and  less  popular  magazines 
The  Essay  an  and  joumals  show  a  decided  improvement  over  those 
of  eZess'^n**^  of  the  colouial  period  and  reveal  many  interesting 
at  this  period,  essays.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  prevailing  fashion 
of  signing  such  essays  only  by  the  name  of  the  charac- 
ter assumed  prevents  us  from  identifying  the  authors  of  many 
essays  which  are  unique  and  excellent.  Among  them  I  found  two 
essays  which  are  interesting  as  revealing  the  attitude  of  the 
writers  of  the  period  toward  this  form  of  writing.  The  first 
appeared  in  The  Massachusetts  Magazine;  or  Monthly  Museum 
of  Rational  Entertainment,^  and  I  quote  an  extract  from  it. 

**  Since  the  publication  of  the  Spectator,  by  the  celebrated 
Addison,  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  a  variety  of 
periodical  papers  have  appeared  under  different  titles  and  sig- 
natures; many  of  them  written  with  accuracy,  containing  ex-  . 
cellent  sentiments,  not  only  amusing  but  instructive;  tending  to  / 
improve  the  morals  and  reform  the  manners  of  the  times. — This 
mode  of  writing  may  be  improved  in  such  manner  as  to  become 
highly  advantageous :  An  essay  may  be  penned  and  communicated 
to  the  public,  in  a  periodical  paper,  by  a  person,  who  if  he  has 
abilities,  may  not  have  leisure  for  long  and  elaborate  performances; 
and  many  persons,  either  through  want  of  inclination,  or  being 
engaged  in  the  business  and  active  scenes  of  life,  not  having  many 
leisure  moments,  will  be  more  likely  to  read  a  short  essay  on  any 
subject,  than  to  sit  down  and  peruse  in  course  a  lengthy  disser- 
tation, though  well  composed,  dressed  in  an  elegant  and  flowery 
diction,  with  all  the  beauties  of  language." 

The  second  of  these  essays  was  published  in  The  Weekly  Maga- 
zine of  Original  Essays,  Fugitive  Pieces  and  Interesting  Intelli- 
gence.^ 

"It  will  be  found,  perhaps,  that  in  all  civilized  nations,  nothing 
has  contributed  more  to  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  than  the 
works  of  their  periodical  writers.  It  is  to  the  correct  taste  and 
labours  of  Addison  that  we  must  ascribe  the  emulation  of  intel- 
lectual elegance  which  now  universally  prevails  in  Great  Britain. 
Before  the  appearance  of  the  Tatler  and  Spectator,  literature  was 
confined  to  the  school  and  the  college.     It  was  Addison  who  made 

1  It  was  excelled  only  by  The  Anthology  and  Boston  Review,  founded  in  Boston 
in  1803,  and  lasting  to  1811. 
'  Boston,  1789.     This  essay  is  signed  The  General  Observer. 
3  Philadelphia.     August  4,  1798,  signed  The  Wanderer. 


54  Graduate  School  Puhlications. 

the  avenues  of  learning  easy  of  access,  and  inculcated  with  every 
blandishment  of  gentleness  the  desire  of  knowledge,  who  by  the 
elegance  of  his  compositions  formed  the  taste  of  his  readers,  and 
by  the  solidity  of  his  doctrine  inspired  them  with  virtue.     .    .    . 

If  therefore,  the  labours  of  the  periodical  writers  have  been 
so  successful  in  Europe,  the  hope  may  be  cherished  that  an  at- 
tempt of  the  same  kind  would  be  encouraged  in  America.  It 
might  be  suggested  that  the  deserved  celebrity  of  preceding  Essay- 
ists should  rather  preclude  than  invite  competition.  But  the 
architect  might  as  well  desist  from  imitating  the  ichnography 
of  a  Jones  and  a  Wren,  because  of  the  elegance  of  their  structures, 
as  the  modern  writer  be  deterred  from  communicating  his  thought 
in  periodical  papers  to  the  world,  because  of  the  skill  and  felicity 
of  his  illustrious  predecessors.  Though  originality  be  the  first 
praise  of  genius,  yet  successful  imitation  is  not  without  its  merit." 

Essays  in  j^  ^jjjg  pgriod   appeared   A    Collection   of  Essays 

spelling.  and   Fugitive    Writings  by  Noah  Webster,   Jr.,^  in- 

teresting to  modern  spelling  reformers  by  reason  of 
the  fact  that  these  essays  are  all  written  in  "reformed"  spelling, 
which  the  author  thus  advocates — 

''Every  possible  reezon  that  could  ever  be  offered  for  altering 
the  spelling  of  wurds  exists  in  full  force ;  and  if  a  gradual  reform 
should  not  be  made  in  our  language,  it  will  proov  that  we  are 
less  under  the  influence  of  reezon  than  our  ancestors.  "^ 

I  have  examined  and  included  in  the  Bibliography  many  odd 
volumes  of  essays  which  appeared  in  this  period,  but  which  were 
of  unequal  merit  and  not  worthy  of  mention  in  the  class  with 
Franklin  and  the  great  political  essayists  and  literary  writers  of 
these  decades. 

The  essayists  of  our  first  American  era  have  been  obscured 
by  the  brilliancy  of  the  period  which  followed.  Nevertheless, 
when  the  storm  and  tempest  of  political  ferment  seemed  fated 
to  kill  the  struggling  growth  of  our  literary  life,  these  writers 
cherished  and  cultivated  the  growing  seeds  of  promise  so  carefully 
that  they  soon  blossomed  into  the  maturity  and  beauty  of  our 
national  literature.  It  must  be  remembered  that  Irving,  Cooper, 
Bryant,  Emerson  and  Hawthorne  were  all  born  before  this  first 
period  closed,  and  the  first  three  were  personally  acquainted 
with  some  of  the  essayists  considered  in  this  chapter,  whose 
lives  and  works  must  have  been  a  contributory  influence  in  the 
literature  produced  by  their  greater  successors  in  the  period  which 
followed. 

» Boston,  1790. 

2  Ibid.,  The  Preface. 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE  MODERN   PERIOD. 

Though  the  two  periods  already  treated  presented 
Period  pro^  difiiculties  because  the  early  American  Essays  were 
uficinthe  either  scarce  or  indistinguishable,  the  modern  era 
EsMySts*  '*^   becomes  a  greater  problem  and  perplexity  by  reason 

of  the  v^rjabundance,  and  variety  of  its  unmistakable  /"^ 
essays.  During  the  Nineteenth  Century  our  literary  growth 
was  as  rapid  and  remarkable  as  our  poUtical  progress.  This 
century  produced  so  many  hundreds  of  essayists  of  unequal 
merit,  that  it  is  impracticable  to  make  an  analytic  study  of 
individual  writers.  But  the  American  Essay  developed  into 
certain  distinctive  classes,  and  from  the  many,  I  have  chosen 
to  consider  a  few  essayists  representative  of  each  class,  whose 
work,  by  its  quality  or  importance  became  a  factor  in  our 
literary  evolution.  In  the  treatment  of  these  writers  I  shall 
make  no  attempt  at  an  exhaustive,  critical  study  of  their 
various  works,  but  shall  note  results  rather  than  means,  remem- 
bering that  this  is  a  study  not  of  individual  writers,  but  of 
whatever  each  may  have  contributed  to  the  development  and 
character  of  the  Essay  as  written  in  America.  If  one  or  two 
writers  receive  a  more  detailed  study  than  the  rest  it  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  they  stand  as  the  most  important  representatives 
of  their  respective  types. 

Washington  Irving  is  justly' considered  the  first 
fcvki^the"  American  writer  of  enduring  eminence,  for  though, 
first  truly  as  wc  havc  sccu,  Franklin  became  famous  on  both 
^teT*°  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  it  was  interest  in  the  man  and 
his  various  achievements  which  secured  a  world-wide 
audience  for  his  expressions  in  hterature;  and  the  other  essayists 
whom  we  have  already  noted  are  of  importance  in  the  early 
history  of  the  American  essay  but  deserve  no  place  in  a  study  of 
real  literature  as  represented  in  the  Essay  of  the  modern  period.         ,^ 

Irving  was  the  first  American  essayist;  in  time — if  • 
irving's  ^Q  remember  that  he  was  born  in  1783,  the  year  which 

essays  mark  a  /.     i       i  •  i  •   i     i      j 

transition        marked  the  final  severance  of  the  last  tie  which  had 
from  the         bound  us  to  Great  Britain;  in  rank — ^for  until  his  ap- 

Addisonian  .  . 

type.  pearance  on  our  literary  horizon,  no  American  author 


56  Graduate  School  Publications. 

of  importance  had  eschewed  all  other  effects  and  pro- 
duced pure  Hterature,  free  of  argument,  serious  purpose  and 
pedantry.  Irving's  work,  while  ranking  as  the  first  representa- 
tive American  literature  may  also  be  regarded  as  marking  a 
definite  transition  in  the  field  of  the  Essay.  Firs^because  in  his 
hands,  the  American  EssaVvCeased  to  be  a  mere  imitation  of  Eng- 
lish models;  and  secondlyToecause  the  passing  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century  type  of  newspaper  Essay  was  achieved  in  his  works.  The 
first  statement  brings  us  upon  debated  ground;  for  some  critics,, 
both  English  and  American,  considered  Irving's  style  as  that  off 
an  English  writer  who  occasionally  chose  American  themesj 
But  Irving,  though  influenced  by  the  best  traditions  of  England's] 
literary  art  was  also  characteristically  American,  and  the  most/ 
popular  of  his  works  were  those  which  could  not  have  beeqf 
the  product  of  any  other  than  his  native  soil.  The  English  Essay 
The  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  was  familiar  to  Irving 

"Salmagundi."  ^j^^j  jj^  j^jg  £j.g^  Writings  he  employed  the  Addisonian- 
manner  in  the  use  of  American  subjects.  The  Periodical  Essay 
with  assumed  signature  which  had  been  so  much  in  vogue  in 
the  preceding  period  had  not  yet  ceased  to  be  popular,  and 
Irving's  first  essays  were  published  in  the  New  York  Chronicle 
in  1802  over  the  signature  of  Jonathan  Oldstyle.  Then  ap- 
peared Salmagundi,  written  by  Washington  and  William  Irving 
and  James  Kirk  Paulding.  Salmagundi  was  a  semi-monthly 
publication  which  ran  for  about  twenty  numbers,  and  Irving's 
contributions  to  it  suggest  those  directions  into  which  his  art 
was  soon  to  lead  him.  These  papers,  faithfully  reproduced  the 
atmosphere  of  the  city  and  the  times  which  they  portray.  Though 
marked  by  many  affectations,  the  style  is  pleasant,  and  the  spirit 
cannot  fail  to  amuse.  A  whimsical  indifference  to  praise  or 
blame,  a  self-satisfied  complacency,  lively  criticism  and  delicate 
humor  are  some  of  the  means  by  which  Salmagundi  created  a  local 
sensation  when  it  appeared,  though  its  fame  has  been  obliterated 
by  the  quality  of  Irving's  later  works. 

It  was  with  the  Sketch  Book  that  Irving  formed 
Book"  a  col  ^^  epoch  in  the  history  of  our  essays,  for  in  this  col- 
lection of  lection,  he  freed  himself  from  the  restrictions  of  the 
^^gj^  newspaper  essays  which  had  prevailed  for  so  long  a 
time,  and  set  a  new  fashion  of  American  narrative 
essays.  The  book  is  a  collection  of  essays  and  short  stories, 
but  even  the  stories  are  pervaded  by  the  Essay  spirit,  for  in  most 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  57 

of  them  the  interest  is  not  that  of  an  intricately  unwinding  plot 
but  of  the  leisurely  revelation  of  incidents  which  are  contemplated, 
enjoyed  and  commented  upon.  In  the  Sketch  Book  are  some 
essays  which  might  have  been  written  by  the  later  Eighteenth 
Century  English  essayists,  and  the  style  of  the  whole  book  has 
not  been  surpassed  in  Nineteenth  Century  England,  but  it  has 
many  specific  qualities  which  differentiate  it  from  its  English 
predecessors.  Whereas  the  motive  of  English  period- 
American  ical  essayists  had  been  to  expose  follies,  to  reform 
characteri-       manners    or    instruct    contemporaries,    the     Sketch       / 

sties.  {/ 

Book  was  delightfully  unmoral,  and  though  marked 
by  sentiment  and  deep  feeling,  its  one  aim  was  to  please  and 
entertain.  Then  too,  the  book,  though  it  contains  some  classical^ 
essays  dealing  sympathetically  with  EngUsh  scenes,  has  won  a 
lasting  popularity  chiefly  by  those  chapters  which  are  exclusively 
American,  and  which  contributed  to  our  literature  the  beauty 
and  romance  of  old  legends  of  the  land,  in  which  it  had  up  to 
this  time  been  entirely  lacking.  Irving's  works  discovereld  for 
us  the  fascinating  superstitions  of  the  realm  of  Rip  Van  Winkle, 
the  poetic  charm  of  the  Hudson,  the  alluring  possibilities  of  an 
untried  West  and  the  traditions  of  our  history  in  its  making. 
Literature  of  this  sort  was  a  revelation  to  Europe  which  had 
looked  upon  America  as  a  new  land  without  legend,  and  it  was 
an  inspiration  to  his  countrymen,  who  up  to  this  time,  had  over- 
looked the  fact  that  American  literature  could  best  thrive  as  a 
growth  of  its  own  American  soil.  With  the  good  sense  so  char- 
acteristic of  him,  Irving  did  not  limit  himself  to  native  themes, 
but  devoted  a  good  share  of  his  writings  to  old-world  subjects — 
English  life,  Spanish  romances  and  records  of  the  world's  his- 
tory, but  even  here  he  reveals  the  fact  that  it  is  new-world  eyes 
which  are  beholding  the  old  scenes.  His  humor,  keen  and  pene- 
trating but  tolerant,  is  the  result  of  a  purely  American  point  of 
view. 

living's  Irving's  works  are  too  much  pervaded  by  an  old 

limitations.  fragrance  of  Eighteenth  Century  literature  to  be  '^ 
considered  as  truly  representative  American  essays,  if  compared 
with  those  which  achieved  renown  in  the  later  development  of 
our  Hterary  life.  Irving  rarely  suggests  or  stimulates.  There 
were  heights  yet  unsealed  which  he  never  reached.  But,  when 
wearied  with  the  stress  and  strain  of  the  intervening  years, 
posterity  may  find  it  pleasant  to  turn  back  to  Irving  and  sur- 


58  Graduate  School  Publications. 

render  once  more  to  the  rare  charm  of  a  simple  and  melodious 
style.  By  their  happy  combination  of  old  and  new,  Irving's 
essays  won  for  him  a  universality  of  distinction  not  usually 
awarded  to  a  pioneer. 

The  well-merited  approval  with  which  Irving's 
influence  as  works  wcre  rcccivcd  both  at  home  and  abroad,  proved 
a  "promoter     ^j^  important  stimulus  in  lifting  our  literature  above 

of  culture."  ... 

its  provincialism.  After  him,  in  quick  succession 
throughout  the  century,  there  appeared  those  writers  who  made 
the  history  of  real  American  letters.  We  are  accustomed  to  look 
upon  Irving  as  the  pioneer'  essayist  and  short-story  writer,  but 
his  influence  upon  his  immediate  successors  lay  in  less  definite 
and  tangible  lines,  for  contemporary  imitators  in  his  own  par- 
ticular field  did  not  succeed  in  preserving  the  popularity  of  his 
Narrative  Essay.  It  was  rather  the  breadth  of  view,  his  far- 
reaching  interest  in  a  variety  of  subjects,  his  cosmopolitan  quali- 
ties combined  with  a  masterly  ability  to  upUft  as  well  as  charm, 
that  stimulated  his  successors.  Irving  was  a  promoter  of  culture, 
and  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  soon  after  his  success,  Ameri- 
can writers  began  to  develop  a  faculty  for  the  criticism  of 
,  .  literature  as  well  as  its  creation.      Of  Irving's  own 

Irving  s 

attitude  temperate  attitude  toward  criticism  we  have  evidence 

toward  jjj  ^jjg  following  selcctiou  from  an  essay  which  appeared 

in  his  Reviews  and  Miscellanies  entitled  "Desultory 
Thoughts  on  Criticism." 

''Were  everyone  ...  to  judge  for  himself  and  speak  his 
mind  frankly  and  fearlessly,  we  should  have  more  true  criticism 
in  the  world  than  at  present.  Whenever  a  person  is  pleased  with 
a  work,  he  may  be  assured  that  it  has  good  qualities.  An  author 
who  pleases  a  .variety  of  readers  must  possess  substantial  powers 
of  pleasure;  or  in  other  words,  intrinsic  merits;  for  otherwise  we 
acknowledge  an  effect  and  deny  the  same.  The  reader  therefore 
should  not  suffer  himself  to  be  readily  shaken  from  the  con- 
victions of  his  own  feelings  by  the  sweeping  assertions  of  pseudo 
critics.  The  author  he  has  admired  may  be  chargable  with  a 
thousand  faults,  but  it  is  nevertheless  beauties  and  excellencies 
that  have  excited  his  admiration,  and  he  should  recollect  that 
taste  and  judgement  are  as  much  evinced  in  the  perception  of 
beauties  among  defects,  as  in  a  detection  of  defects  among  beau- 
ties. For  my  part,  I  honor  the  blessed  and  blessing  spirit  that 
is  quick  to  discover  and  extol  all  that  is  pleasing  and  meritorious. 
Give  me  the  honest  bee,  that  extracts  honey  from  the  humblest 
weed  but  save  me  from  the  ingenuity  of  the  spider,  which  traces 
its  venom  even  in  the  midst  of  a  flower  garden." 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  59 

Aside  from  a  few  reviews,  there  had  been  no  real 
Mui^m  du^-  criticism  in  America  during  the  Seventeenth  and  Eight- 
ing  the  17th  eenth  Centuries,  and  though  Irving  and  his  contem- 
Centliries.  poraries  had  evinced  a  somewhat  desultory  critical 
spirit,  the  Nineteenth  Century  was  well  advanced 
before  this  tendency  assumed  noticeable  importance.  Irving's 
influence  is  distinctly  traceable  in  the  early  prose  works  of  Long- 
fellow, but  as  a  promoter  of  culture  Longfellow  did  greater 
service  than  Irving,  for  having  an  academic  training  he  was  able 
to  introduce  and  interpret  much  hitherto  unknown  European 
Longfellow  literature  to  his  fellow-countrymen.  We  are  so  ap- 
as  a  critical  prcciative  of  Longfellow's  place  in  poetry  that  his 
ssayist.  contributions  to  American  criticism  are  seldom  recog- 
nized. After  three  years  of  travel  in  Europe,  and  with  Irving's 
successful  Sketch  Book  in  mind,  Longfellow,  in  1829,  admits 
that  he  is  *' writing  a  kind  of  'Sketch  Book'  of  scenes  in  France, 
Spain  and  Italy,"  and  in  1834  and  1835  the  book  appeared  with 
the  title  Outre-Mer.  That  the  sketches  contained  in  it  bear 
all  the  hall-marks  of  the  true  Essay  spirit  is  evident  to  the  reader 
of  the  ''Epistle  Dedicatory,"  wherein  Longfellow  states — 

"Perchance  what  I  have  written  will  be  little  to  thy  taste; — 
for  it  is  little  in  accordance  with  a  stirring  spirit  of  the  present  age. 
If  so,  I  crave  thy  forbearance  for  having  thought  that  even  the 
busiest  mind  might  not  be  a  stranger  to  those  moments  of  repose, 
when  the  clock  of  time  clicks  drowsily  behind  the  door,  and  trifles 
become  the  amusement  of  the  wise  and  great." 

This  work  and  the  later  essays  to  which  he  gave  the  title 
"Drift-wood"  are  more  than  mere  collections  of  narrative 
essays  and  travel  chronicles,  for  it  was  the  spirit  of  the  Old  World 
rather  than  its  external  characteristics  which  Longfellow  inter- 
preted for  his  countrymen.  Those  works  contained  literary 
papers,  whose  composition  required  a  knowledge  and  breadth  of 
culture  that  was  rare  in  the  American  people  previous  to  his 
appearance.  There  were  but  few,  if  any,  of  his  contemporaries 
who  could  write  intelligently  on  such  subjects  as  "Ancient 
French  Romances,"  "Frithiof's  Saga"  and  "Anglo  Saxon  Liter- 
ature." These  papers,  though  not  briUiantly  critical,  merit  a 
place  in  the  history  of  American  criticism,  especially  as  it  is  repre- 
sented in  the  Essay,  for  though  conveying  instruction,  they  do  it 
in  a  manner  so  attractive  and  so  imbued  with  the  gentle  person- 


60  Graduate  School  Publications. 

ality  of  the  writer  that  they  never  overstep  the  bounds  of  the 
^Essay  and  merge  into  didactic  formahty. 

The  Critical  This  brings  us  to  the  dividing  line  which  separates 
Essayists.  ^j^g  Critical  Essay  from  the  larger  school  of  criticism 
which  is  represented  by  the  long  Hterary  analysis  or  extended 
book  review.  I  have  regarded  as  representative  Critical  Essay- 
ists only  those  writers  who,  in  their  criticism  of  others  have 
interpreted  literature  as  seen  through  their  own  temperaments, 
''Discovering  old  authors  anew  for  themselves,"  and  preserving 
in  their  appreciations  the  personal  and  suggestive  elements  by 
which  we  distinguish  the  Essay  from  the  treatise. 

Longfellow's  critical  work  had  been  chiefly  on  the 
Poe"s  a  ^  si^^  ^^  appreciation,  but  criticism  must  detect  faults 
critic  of  his  as  well  as  merit,  and  the  critical  essays  of  Edgar  Allan 
r^ls"^"  Poe  introduced  the  elements  of  ridicule,  satire  and 
disapproval.  All  these  are  necessary  to  criticism, 
but  they  should  be  the  result  of  judgment  based  upon  broader 
standards  than  those  of  the  mere  personal  preference  or  caprice 
which  often  actuated  Poe  to  take  up  his  critical  pen.  Never- 
theless he  deserves  credit  for  having  added  honest  frankness  of 
opinion  to  critical  craftsmanship.  Confining  his  criticism  to  his 
American  contemporaries  and  particularly  to  the  "  Literati '' 
of  New  York,  it  was  inevitable  that  many  of  his  estimates  should 
prove  incorrect.  He  was  too  close  to  his  subjects  in  time  and 
place  to  obtain  a  proper  perspective,  and  this  is  especially  evident 
in  his  depreciation  of  Longfellow,  Cooper  and  Hawthorne.  But 
on  the  other  hand,  Poe's  insight  has  proved  prophetic  in  many 
instances  where  time  and  posterity  have  verified  his  conclusions. 
If  we  exclude  his  unwarrantable  praise  of  certain  contemporary 
"Poetesses"  and  his  angry  cuts  at  his  literary  enemies,  we  must 
credit  him  with  having  performed  a  valuable  service  in  exposing 
many  literary  impostors  and  in  changing  the  then  prevalent 
fashion  of  making  criticism  identical  with  puffery,  though  to  do  so 
was  to  make  enemies  for  himself  and  retard  his  own  material 
progress.^ 

1  Poe's  Critical  writings  appear  in  the  collected  works.  They  include  the 
series  called  The  Literati,  Short  Essays  on  Various  American  Authors,  the 
Essays  on  Mrs.  Browning,  Macaulay,  Lever,  Marryat,  Cockton  and  Dickens," 
and  the  essays  entitled  The  Poetic  Principle,  The  Rationale  of  Verse,  and  the 
Philosophy  of  Composition. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  61 

Poe'sbest  Poe's  best  legacy  to  criticism  is  embodied  in  the 

Critical  three  essays  entilied  ''The  Poetic  Principle,"  ''The 

Essays.  Rationale  of  VeMf '  and  the  "Philosophy  of  Composi- 

tion." These  careful  s^Bes  into  the  art  and  aesthetics  of 
authorship  are  more  than  mere  critical  essays.  They  are  crea- 
tive and  interpretative  literature. 

No  "school"  There  is  no  so-called  "school"  of  American  criti- 
of  American  cism  and  a  study  of  criticism  as  represented  in  Ameri- 
cnticism.  ^^^  Essays  is  made  difficult  by  the  fact  that,  though 
many  writers  devotej^me  of  their  works  to  criticism,  there  was 
only  one  essayist  in^c  past  century  who  made  criticism  a  life- 
work  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  forms  of  literary  expression. 
.  Edwin  Peij^ Whipple  was  a  professional  critic.     He 

Whipple,  a  says  "ma^rof^the  strongest  minds  of  the  age  will 
professional  J^J^o^other  record  behind  them  than  critical  essays 
^^H^Tpopular  speeches."  Even  he  did  not  confine 
himselj^^purely  literary  themes,  but  chose  such  broadly  ranged 
subjects  as  Literature  and  Life,  Character  and  Characteristic 
Men,  Success  and  its  Conditions,  The  Literature  of  the  Age  of 
Elizabeth^  and  Recollections  of  Eminent  Men.  He  brings  a  crit- 
ical and  interpretative  but  npvpr^  ai^  jnvpntjyp  faculty  to  bear*^ 
upon  all  his  subjects.  Whipple  represents  a  departure  in  style 
from  the  graciousness  and  flexibility  of  Addison,  Irving  and 
Lamb.  His  kinship  is  with  Hooker,  Bacon  and  Johnson.  In  "^ 
his  hand^^e  Essay  became  more,  finished  and  formal.  His 
work  emlWRed  the  fast  accumulating  traits  which  differentiated 
our  literature  from  that  of  England.  Their  distinctive  Ameri- 
canisms are  evinced  in  the  "massive  good  sense"  which  tempers 
the  pages  of  all  he  wrote;  in  the  emphasis  laid  upon  grit  and  de- 
termination; in  the  scorn  for  j/tf/p^  and  pretense,  and  in  the 
moral  earnestness  which  cause^^hittier  to  say  that  Whipple 
wrote  "with  consci^fc always  at  his  elbow  and  never  sacrificed 
his  real  convictions^W^  the  sake  of  epigram."  In  criticism  his 
most  imitable  contribution  was  his  spirit  of  justice  by  which 
he  represented  both  sides  of  all  questions,  and  the  tolerance 
which  enabled  him  to  see  beyond  the  conventional  in  his  search 
for  motives.^ 

1  This  tolerant  spirit  is  beautifully  exemplified  in  his  essay  on  George  Eliot. 


62  Graduate  School  Publications. 


Authors  who 
wrote  both 


Other  critical  essays  "of  our  literature  are  to  be 
found  in  the  works  of^H:iters  who  represent  also  the 
Critical  and      more  purely  personal^jije   of   Essay.     Among  the 
Essay^^         writers  of  both  Personal  ^p  Critical  Essays  was  James 
Russell    Lowell,    whose    first   prose    work    Conversa- 
'  Hans  on  some  of  the  Old  Poets  revived  the,  neglected  dialogue 
essay,  and  in  its  sentimentality  seems  to  be  separated  by  a  cen- 
james  ^^^y  ^^oui  the  virility  of  his  later  works.     His  Fire- 

Russeu  side  Travels  which  appeared  periodically  in  Putnam's 

Monthly,  is  a  miscellaneou^^Mection  of  descriptive, 
reminiscent  and  personal  essays.  Lo^Ps  critical  writings  are 
contained  in  his  Among  my  Books  and  My  Study  Windows. 
In  range  and  diversity  these  exceed  thg^J^jects  treated  by  Long- 
fellow and  Poe.  With  a  zest  for  criticism  he  leads  the  way  into 
unexplored  fields  of  literature  in  England,  tf ^H^^kFrance  and 
Italy;  and  at  the  same  time  performs  his  bes^JB^in  inter- 
preting American  incidents  and  authors.  His  wHPr  catholic 
taste,  accompanied  by  an  independent  insight.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  Lowell  frequently  allowed  his  personal  preferences  to  limit 
his  judgment,  and  that  he  often  overlooks  general  merit  in  his 
exposition  of  particular  faults.  Thus  we  find  him  broadly  inter- 
pretative in  his  praise  but  biased  and  prejudiced  when  he 
attempts  to  expose  faults.  His  essay  on  Thoreau,  for  instance, 
remains  one  of  the  most  misleading  pieces  of  criticism  in  our 
literature,  and,  coming  from  so  authoritative  a  souM^it  has  done 
irremediable  harm  to  its  subject.  Lowell's  prose  s^m  is  not  that 
of  the  master  artist.  He  is  sometimes  strikingly  splendid  in 
details  of  expression,  but  lacks  the  ability  to  sustain  his  art  to 
the  completed  construction  of  a  well-organized  composition. 
His  illustrations  are  sometB^  more  democratic  than  elegant. 
George  ^^^  Critical  ana  more  personal  are  the  essays  of 

wiuiam    ^    George   William   Curtis,   w^^  two   little   volumes 
"^^'  bearing  the  title  From  the  rJasy  Chair,  contain  the 

essays  with  which  for  many  years  he  interested  the  readers  of 
'Harper's  Magazine.  These  are  fragrantly  suggestive  of  the 
Addisonian  spirit,  though  so  modern  as  to  differ  from  Addison 
in  subject  and  method.  He  treats  of  drama  and  song,  authors 
p^st  and  present,  bygone  days  and  ways,  foUies  and  virtues, 
politics  and  religion^n  brief,  men,  women  and  events  so  engage 
his  attention  that  he  deserves  a  place  in  the  study  of  our  Essays 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  63 

as  an  interpreter  of  Life,  with  loyalty  to  the  old  ideals  of  the  essay- 
ists' art. 

Thomas  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson  has  been  a  prolific 

Wentworth      writer  of  Critical  and  Personal  Essays.     His  reminis- 
igginson.       cences  of  the  great  Nineteenth  Century  writers  are 
of  special  value,  and  his  critical  studies  are  tolerant  and  illumi- 
nating. 

WiiuamDean  WilHam  Dean  Howells  since  the  appearance  of 
HoweUs.  Venetian  Days  has  ranked  among  our  essayists.  His 
Modern  Italian  Poets  represents  a  formal  and  academic  criti- 
cism without  the  personal  note  which  becomes  evident  in  his 
Criticism  and  Fiction,  My  Literary  Passions,  Literary  Friends 
and  Acquaintances  and  Heroines  of  Fiction. 
The  Trans-  The  distance  is  great  between  the  "Easy  Chair '* 

cendentaiists.  ^fcPurtis  and  the  strenuousness  of  the  Transcendental 
essayis^lpiro  like  the  writers  just  considered  are  to  be  classed 
as  bot^fftical  and  personal.  These  writers,  associated  as  they 
were  by  a  common  purpose,  manifest  also  a  similarity  in  their 
critical  attitude,  preferring  the  intensely  suggestive  and  reac- 
tionary to  the  classical  in  Uterature.  One  of  .the  lesser  Trans- 
cendentalists  was  Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli,  who  was  too 
Margaret  conspicuous  in  her  own  day  to  be  left  unmentioned, 
Fuller  ossou.  though  her  essays  are  not  of  enduring  merit.  As 
editor  of  The  Dial,  she  exerted  a  perceptible  influence  upon  con- 
temporary life  and  thought  and  was  able  to  demonstrate  that  a 
woman  was  qualified  to  associate  as  a  co-worker  with  such  Uterary 
lights  as  Emerson,  Channing,  Alcott  and  Thoreau.  Her  critical 
essays,  though  forceful  and  varied,  are  marked  by  repeated  in- 
accuracies which  may  account  for  their  neglect  in  the  present 
day. 

Amos  Bronson  The  most  important  essayist  of  the  so-called  Trans- 
Aicott.  cendental  school  was  Emerson,  but  Amos  Bronson 

Alcott  has  left  his  impression  on  the  essay  of  this  type  by  his  three 
volumes,  the  Concord  Days,  Table  Talk  and  Tablets.  Many 
of  these  essays  are  but  manuscript  reproductions  of  Alcott 's 
famous  ''conversations,"  and  they  exhibit  no  orderly  treatment 
nor  system  of  expression.  As  he  himself  said  "We  are  not  happy  , 
with  the  pen,''  yet,  when  he  got  away  from  the  "vagUe  reverie"*' 
of  which  he  was  so  fond,  he  proved  that  he  could  write  extremely 
well  on  subjects- which  he  understood.  This  is  true  of  his  criti- 
cal essays,  which  reveal  him  as  a  lover  of  books,  and  though  his 


64  Graduate  School  Publications. 

reading  was  limited  to  the  few  lines  of  thought  to  which  he  was 
partial  by  temperament,  his  opinions  of  his  chosen  authors  are 
always  discriminating. 

Closely  allied  with  Alcott  but  rising  immeasurably 
Emerson— the  above  him  in  literary  importance  was  Ralph  Waldo 
ideal  Ameri-  Emerson,  who  voiccd  for  America  the  new  Zeitgeist 
which  marked  the  downfall  of  classicism  and  arti- 
ficiality and  the  rise  of  naturalism  and  individual  freedom  of 
thought  and  expression.  It  is  impossible  to  separate  Emerson, 
the  poet  and  philosopher,  from  Emerson,  the  essayist,  but  we 
must  limit  our  concern  to  the  literature  of  the  Essays.  His 
first  two  series  of  essays  were  collected  from  the  best  of  his  lec- 
tures. No  other  writer  better  exemplifies  the  close  relationship 
that  exists  between  the  Essay  and  the  oral  utterance,  for  his 
lectures  were  but  the  reading^  of  his  essays.  T]|«|  two  series 
were  followed  by  the  Miscellanies,  Representa^^fMen,  Eng- 
lish Traits,  The  Conduct  of  Ldfe,  Society  and  Solitil^^nd  Let- 
ters and  Social  Ams. /Emerson  was  pre-eminently  an  essayist, 
and  we  may  call  him  the  most  representative  of  all  our  essay- 
ists, for  his  works  exemplify  almost  every  possible  class  into 
which  the  American  Essay  developed.  There  are  personal  and 
broadly  critical  essays  in  the  Representative  Men,  descriptive 
sketches  appear  among  the  English  Traits,  biographical  and 
narrative  elements  are  not  lacking,  nature  is  interpreted,  and 
in  their  entirety,  Emerson's  essays,  better  than  any  others  in 
our  literature,  fulfill  the  essay-ideal,  in  that  they,  each  and  all, 
^N  are  highly  suggestive  expressions  of  their  author's  personality. 
.Ranging  in  subject  from  the  homeliness  of  actual  life  to  the  vast 
'  wonderment  of  eternity  and  the  mysteries  of  time  and  space, 
they  utter  a  philosophy  based  upon  observation  and  mystical 
insight.  By  the  style  of  his  essays  Emerson  proved  that  the 
American  literary  artist  could  free  himself  from  English  influence 
and  create  a  new  method  which  is  inimitable;  for  Emerson's 
style  is  his  own  and  owed  nothing  to  Bacon,  Addison  or  Carlyle, 
or  any  other  EngUsh  essayisty^  Here  are  but  few  balanced  struc- 
tures and  no  pedantry,  Latinisms  nor  ornamental  quotations. 
Though  open  to  the  charge  of  obscurity  and  incoheren'ce,  he  is 
so  to  a  less  degree  than  is  usually  asserted  of  him,  for  the  very 
expressions  which  at  first,  seem  darkly  incomprehensible  some- 
how succeed  in  suggesting  a  thousand  thoughts  which  eventually 
illuminate  his  meaning  and  set  us  groping  toward  unthought-of 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  65 

lights.  The  style  fits  the  man.  He  is  the  apostle  of  individual- 
ism, and  as  such  he  is  the  apostle  of  the  literary  development  of 
America  and  the  prophet  of  that  ultimate  ideal  which  it  may  at- 
tain when  its  culture  shall  triumph  over  its  materialism.  He 
says  "here  let  there  be  what  the  earth  waits  for, — exalted  man- 
hood. What  this  country  longs  for  is  personalities,  grand  persons 
to  counteract  its  materialities." 

Emerson  and  Emerson  appears  more  than  ever  as  the  ideal  Amer- 
Montaigne.  [qq^j^  essayist  whcu  we  come  to  compare  him  with 
Montaigne.  A  detailed  comparison  of  these  two  writers  may 
prove  of  contributory  interest  here,  since  no  essayist  in  any  land 
has  had  more  of  kinship  than  Emerson  with  the  great  predeces- 
sor of  all  the  genuine  essayists. 

A  reader  must,  in  imagination,  make  a  long  detour  in  passing 
from  the  France  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  to  the  New  England  of 
the  Ninteenth.  His  spirit,  which,  dwelling  with  Montaigne 
and  storm-tossed  by  the  discords,  licentiousness  and  corruption 
of  an  unstable  civihzation,  may  have  folded  its  wings  close  to  the 
earth,  will  rise  and  soar  unhindered  when,  with  Emerson,  it 
breathes  of  a  moral  atmosphere  in  a  new  and  advanced 
civilization. 

In  comparing  these  two  great  essayists,  separated  as  they 
were  by  centuries  of  time  and  thought,  I  have  found  so  much  of 
kinship  in  the  essential  qualities  of  each  that  it  becomes  inter- 
esting to  picture  how  close  an  alliance  might  have  existed  be- 
tween them  could  the  soul  of  Montaigne  have  been  reincarnated 
into  the  intellectual  progress  of  Emerson's  times.  The  differ- 
ences between  them  are  very  clearly  defined  and  evident,  but 
ultimately  are  found  to  be  the  difference  in  degree  of  spiritual 
development;  a  result  of  their  respective  centuries  rather  than  of 
any  great  unlikeness  in  the  essayists  themselves. 
Similarity  of  Both  Seem  to  have  had  as  the  impulse  that  gave 
impulse.  j-igg  iq  ^j^gjj.  writings  an  unusual  ''ardor  of  reflection." 
Montaigne  reflects  chiefly  on  himself  and  his  fellow-men.  It  is 
''the  art  of  living  completely  and  rightly"  that  engages  his  at- 
tention. He  "  surveys  without  judging  "  and  is  content  to  remain 
ignorant  of  the  great  Unknowable.  He  represents  the  Average 
Man.  Emerson  reflects  unceasingly  but  ponders  less  upon  him- 
self than  upon  humanity,  concerning  whom  he  often  reaches  the 
same  conclusions  as  Montaigne,  but  goes  further,  in  that  with 
an  interest  more  intellectual  than  human,  he  often  rises  from  the 

5 


66  Graduate  School  Publications. 

contemplation  of  men  and  their  commonplace  lives  into  a  spec- 
ulation ui>on  the  life  of  the  soul  and  mysteries  of  its  existence. 
But  it  is  hfe  which  is  the  chief  interest  of  each,  and  in  their  re- 
flections they  arrive  at  the  same  conclusions  with  striking  fre- 
quency as  I  have  discovered  in  my  search  for  similarities  of  sub- 
ject-matter and  thought. 

Similarity  of  This  Same  investigation  led  me  to  make  the  inter- 
subjects.  esting  discovery,  that  of  Emerson's  twenty  essays 
there  are  only  two  for  which  I  could  find  no  parallel  among  those 
of  Montaigne,  and  of  those  two  I  shall  presently  treat  as  most 
significant  of  the  differences  between  the  two  writers.  Not 
only  does  Emerson  turn  his  attention  to  subjects  which  had  in- 
terested Montaigne,  but  in  the  discussion  of  them  one  often  finds 
the  two  men  bridging  the  chasm  of  centuries  with  thoughts 
almost  identical.  It  is  hard  to  decide  whether  this  be  accidental 
or  not,  for  Emerson  in  his  essay  on  Montaigne  frequently  con- 
fesses that  his  personal  regard  for  that  writer  may  be  unduly 
great,  and  goes  on  to  relate  with  what  ardor  he  had  read  Mon- 
taigne during  his  impressionable  college  days.  This  may  or 
not  account  for  their  resemblances.  To  go  into  every  possible 
detail  of  this  parallelism  would  require  a  volume,  and  I  shall 
indicate  but  briefly  the  result  of  my  attempt  to  compare  their 
subject-matter  and  conclusions. 

Emerson's  first  subject  is  History  and  one  may  turn  to  Mon- 
taigne and  find  a  discourse  on  books  which  includes  a  section 
on  History.  Their  general  comments  on  books,  their  opinions 
as  to  history,  and  their  personal  preferences  for  biography  are 
strikingly  alike.  Emerson's  Self-reliance  is  foreshadowed  by 
Montaigne  in  How  One  Ought  to  Govern  His  Will ;  Compen- 
sation contains  the  same  underlying  idea  as  Montaigne's  We 
Taste  Nothing  Purely.  Spiritual  Laws  is  briefly  treated  in 
Montaigne's  That  a  Man  Ought  Soberly  to  Meddle  with  Judging 
of  Divine  Laws.  Emerson's  next  essay  is  Love,  and  for  this  the 
parallel  may  be  found  in  Montaigne's  On  Some  Verses  of 
Vergil,  and  though  no  two  essays  so  strikingly  illustrate  the 
difference  between  the  two  centuries  which  they  represent,  yet 
even  here  one  may  find  a  few  like  conclusions.  Emerson's 
Heroism  contains  a  few  thoughts  from  Montaigne's  Custom 
of  the  Isle  of  Cea.  His  "Oversoul,^'  the  poetic  title  of  which 
would  mean  nothing  to  Montaigne,  sets  forth  many  ideas  which 
are  embodied  in  the  long  ''Apology"  which  forms  the  twelfth 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  67 

chapter  of  Montaigne's  second  book.  And  so  on  through  all 
but  two  of  Emerson's  essays  we  may  discover  the  same  subjects 
treated  by  Montaigne. 

simaarityof  I  havc  mentioned  only  the  similarity  of  subjects, 
thought.  £qj,  ig^gjj-  Qf  ^jj^g  jjg^g  obliged  me  to  omit  copying  and 

inserting  the  many  parallelisms  of  thought  which  I  found,  and 
which  reward  a  careful  comparison  of  the  essays.  In  two  in- 
stances I  discovered  sentences  which  were  almost  identical. 
A  comparison  Passiug  from  their  subject-matter  to  their  general 
of  their  style,  methods  of  cxpressiou  certain  characteristic  likenesses 
and  differences  may  be  found.  Both  men  pay  greater  attention 
to  the  thoughts  they  would  express,  than  to  the  mode  of  expres- 
sion. Though  both  are  somewhat  careful  in  the  choice  of  words, 
yet  it  is  spontaneity  rather  than  study  which  characterizes  the 
style  of  each.  This  same  spontaneity  causes  both  to  depart  N. 
from  the  canons  of  literary  style.  In  Montaigne  it  results  in  a 
conversational  method;  ''I  speak  to  paper  as  I  do  to  the  first 
person  I  meet,"  he  says;  and  this  naturally  leads  him  to  discur- 
siveness which  marks  and  sometimes  mars  his  style.  He  con- 
siders life,  but  never  attempts  to  construct  theories,  and  his 
chief  interest  being  himself,  he  is  always  more  personal  than 
Emerson.  Emerson's  discourse  takes  on  the  nature  of  spoken 
language,  but  only  when  he  rises  above  the  tranquil  actuality, 
and  letting  his  intellectual  activity  have  full  sway,  gives  utter- 
ance to  his  thoughts  in  eloquent  declamation.  How  frequently, 
nevertheless,  Emerson,  with  his  occasional  egotism  of  genius, 
keen  observation,  wajnvard  contemplations  and  personal  humility 
and  simplicity,  reminds  us  of  his  voluble  predecessor.  Whenever 
Emerson  is  content  to  keep  his  feet  upon  the  earth,  he  meets 
Montaigne  upon  a  common  vantage  ground,  and  the  latter  easily 
reaches  Emerson's  level  of  thought  and  contemplation.  Emer- 
son, however,  has  heard  the  call  of  a  ''still  small  voice"  within 
him,  which  speaks  only  to  the  chosen  few,  and  obeying  the  sum- 
mons he  must  needs  leave  Montaigne,  'Hhe  average  man"  plod- 
ding upon  the  earth,  while  he,  upon  the  wings  of  his  spirit,  rises 
to  heights  of  poetry  and  mysticism  and  writes  the  two  essays,  . 
one  upon  Art  and  the  other  on  The  Poet  for  which  subjects  I  X 
look  in  vain  among  all  of  Montaigne's  discourses. 
Differences,  Montaigue  has  absolutely  no  regard  for  art.  To 
Emerson  it  is  the  underlying  principle  in  every  human  achieve- 
ment.    It  is  ''the  reappearance  of  the  original  soul,"  and  beauty 


68  Graduate  School  Publications. 

in  its  highest  manifestation.  How  seldom  one  finds  that  word 
beauty  in  Montaigne,  except  as  applied  to  things  temporal  and 
hiunan,  and  of  poetry  as  such,  he  is  equally  oblivious.  This 
gives  rise  to  the  most  striking  contrast  in  the  expression  of  the 
two  men.  Montaigne's  language  is  always  perfectly  intelligi- 
ble, sometimes  brutally  frank  and  definite.  Emerson,  in  every 
essay,  makes  use  of  words  which  may  only  be  understood  poeti- 
cally. He  is  often  vague,  sometimes  unintelligible,  always  true 
poet  in  suggesting  more  than  can  be  perfectly  expressed  in  'words. 
Montaigne  expresses  an  affectionate  regard  for  certain  poets, 
but  always  on  account  of  some  quality  in  the  men  themselves, 
or  because  their  thoughts  and  manner  of  expression  have  struck 
a  sympathetic  chord  in  himself.  He  never  rises  into  the  poetic 
mood;  never  gets  above  reality  with  Emerson  who  says  of  the 
poet — 

"Thou  shalt  leave  the  world  and  know  the  Muse  only.  Thou 
shalt  not  know  any  longer  the  times,  customs,  graces,  politics  or 
opinions  of  men,  but  shall  take  all  from  the  Muse,  .... 
Wherever  is  danger,  and  awe,  and  love,  there  is  beauty,  plenteous 
as  rain,  shed  for  thee;  and  though  thou  shouldest  walk  all  the 
world  over,  thou  shalt  not  be  abje  to  find  a  condition  inopportune 
or  ignoble/' 

Both  of  these  essayists  represent  life.  Montaigne  is  said  to 
be  more  universal  than  Emerson.  There  is  something  of  the 
Montaigne  in  all  of  us;  but  there  is  also  for  every  man  Emerson's 
realm  of  the  spirit.  It  lies  somewhat  above  Montaigne's  middle 
regions  of  actuality,  and,  being  more  inaccessible,  is  less  com- 
monly inhabited;  but  it  is  none  the  less  universal.  Montaigne 
is  of  the  earth,  damp  and  sweet  and  wholesome;  Emerson  is  of 
the  mist,  lying  above  but  very  near  it.  Both  are  elemental. 
Henry  David  FoUowing  the  traditions  of  Emerson,  but  founding 
Thoreau.  ^i  new  and  distinctively  American  type  of  Essay  was 
Henry  David  Thoreau,  whose  contributions  to  our  essays  I  have 
found  it  worth  while  to  consider  at  some  length,  partly  because 
he  was  the  pioneer  writer  of  those  nature  books  which  have  de- 
veloped into  a  most  successful  field  of  American  letters,  but  more 
because  of  his  literary  style,  which  has  not  been  excelled  by  any- 
other  essayist  in  our  literature.  Thoreau,  as  a  styHst,  has  never 
been  fully  appreciated,  nor  have  his  characteristic  qualities  of 
thought  and  expression  as  yet  received  the  attention  they  merit. 


in  our 
literature. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  69 

He  is  a  unique  figure,  and  his  very  peculiarities  should 
endear  him  to  us.  So  few  of  us  are  capable  of  creating 
particular  ideals  for  ourselves.  We  prefer  lazily  to 
accept  somebody's — or  everybody's,  and  at  last  grow 
weary  of  finding  endless  repetitions  of  ourselves  in  the  people  we 
meet.  But  occasionally  there  appears  a  man  whose  individuality 
is  so  marked,  that  in  his  personality,  his  thought,  his  work,  and 
the  whole  ordering  of  his  life,  we  see  reflections  of  the  light  of  a 
lodestar  which  seems  to  shine  for  him  alone.  It  is  a  fortunate 
event  in  literature  when  such  a  man  finds  it  an  expression  for  his 
individuality,  and  lets  his  pages  bring  his  ideals  within  the  vision 
of  his  fellow-men.  If  he  be  but  sincere  and  unaffected,  how  the 
generations  love  him  for  showing  his  real  self  to  his  readers! 
It  is  his  book,  along  with  Walton's  and  Browne's,  that  we  carry 
about  with  us;  for  I  have  often  noticed  that  those  volumes  which 
seem  to  defy  classification  and  which  fit  on  no  particular  shelf 
of  our  library,  do  familiarly  attach  themselves  to  our  persons 
and  our  affections,  becoming  thumbed  and  marked,  growing 
old  along  with  us,  while  the  properly  placed  series  in  the  book- 
case remains  perennially  unworn — and  too  often — unread. 
American  literature  has  produced  but  few  such  books,  for  we 
in  America  have  as  yet  been  too  busy  in  constructing  the  com- 
mon highways  to  be  spared  for  the  blazing  of  our  own  particular 
trails.  But  there  came  a  period  in  the  past  century  when  the 
spirit  of  Transcendentalism  brooded  over  our  brave  New  England 
and  set  the  people  so  a-flutter  with^ew  thoughts  and  longings  that 
they  straightway  began  to  open  new  vistas  for  themselves  and  us. 
Henry  David  Thoreau  is  usually  ranked  among  the  Concord 
group  of  Transcendentalists  which  includes  Emerson  Alcott, 
Channing  and  Margaret  Fuller.  He  probably  belonged  to  the 
same  constellation,  but  his  is  a  lonely  fight  shining  slightly  apart 
from  the  rest.  He  preferred  to  be  alone,  and  so  profitably  did  he 
consult  his  own  genius  that  his  writings  are  to  be  numbered  among 
the  beloved  ''lonely"  books  of  our  literature. 

Thoreau's  first  book,  A  Week  on  the  Concord  and 
an  expression  Merrimock  Rivcrs  is  the  result  of  a  "dual  solitude." 
of  his  own  Walden,  his  next  and  best  known  work,  was  the 
outcome  of  the  years  he  spent  alone  in  a  self-built 
shanty  on  the  edge  of  Walden  Pond.  These  two  were  published 
during  his  lifetime  and  may  be  considered  as  a  series  of  essays. 
Subsequently  his  miscellaneous  essays,  excursions  and  journals 


70  Graduate  School  Publications. 

were  edited.  So  imbued  are  all  his  writings  with  his  own  per- 
sonaUty  and  ideals  that  he  might  have  exclaimed  with  Mon- 
taigne, '' myself e  am  the  groundworke  of  my  booke/'  That  this 
self  was  essentially  different  from  other  people,  all  must  acknowl- 
edge, but  he  was  so  in  a  manner  to  win  our  admiration  rather 
than  to  merit  the  derision  which  some  skeptical  critics  have  been 
pleased  to  direct  toward  his  most  cherished  projects.  Thoreau, 
the  man,  was  pre-eminently  a  Yankee — lacking  only  the  Yankee's 
narrowness  of  view;  curious,  kindly,  simple,  quizzical,  humorous, 
self -helping,  and  beneath  all  his  culture  lay  ''that  wildness  in 
him  which  nothing  could  subdue."  William  Ellery  Channing, 
his  kindhest  biographer,  says,  ''He  was  one  of  those  who  keep  so 
much  of  the  boy  in  them  that  he  could  never  pass  a  berry  without 
picking  it.''  His  life  was  a  succession  of  Concord  days,  varied 
only  by  occasional  excursions  to  the  Maine  Woods  or  the  New 
England  Coast.  His  philosophy  might  be  summed  up  as  a  de- 
votion to  simplicity  of  life,  purity  of  thought,  and  singleness  of 
purpose.  It  was  but  the  working  out  of  his  own  inherent  desire 
for  the  permanent  and  unchangeable  which  caused  him  to  find 
nature  the  most  appealing  and  absorbing  interest  of  his  life. 
Thoreau  more  Thorcau  says,  "here  I  have  been  forty  years  learn- 
than  a  ing  the  language  of  these  fields  that  I  may  the  better 

°*  ^  *  express  myself."  I  have  thought  that  too  great  stress 
is  commonly  laid  upon  the  fact  that  Thoreau  was  a  naturaUst. 
It  is  as  if  we  were  to  emphasize  Sir  Thomas  Browne's  medical 
knowledge  to  the  exclusion  of  his  literary  charms.  Channing 
designates  Thoreau  "the  Poet-NaturaUst "  and  that  is  more  fitting, 
but  it  does  not  suggest  his  breadth  of  thought,  which  seems  to 
touch  life  at  so  many  points,  his  keen  critical  abiUty — and  his 
mastery  of  prose-style.  Had  he  been  less  a  poet,  he  would  have 
been  a  genuine  man  of  science,  for  he  had  a  passion  for  par- 
ticulars which  he  vented  in  his  observations  of  nature.  But  he 
found  an  entirely  new  way  of  looking  at  nature.  What  he 
found  there  was  not  a  mere  collection  of  text-book  facts;  nor  was 
it  a  goddess  to  be  worshipped  and  sung  about  in  classical  allusions. 
He  knew  the  flora  and  fauna  of  his  native  environment  wonder- 
fully well,  but  he  knew  them  sympathetically.  He  saw  Nature 
through  a  Poet's  eye  and  what  he  saw  filled  him  with  awe  and 
wonder.  His  chief  delight  in  nature,  however,  seemed  to  rest 
upon  the  thoughts  and  emotions  which  even  her  most  un- 
attractive and  neglected  objects  might  suggest  to  his  own  par- 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  71 

ticularly  receptive  temperament,  and  of  these  his  books  are  the 
record. 

The  Week  on  the  Concord  and  Merrimack  Rivers 
on^e^on-  ^^  ^^  ^®  ^^^  most  delightful  of  all  his  works,  though 
cord  and  Woldcn  scems  to  have  been  more  widely  read.  The 
mvers"'^*^^  book  is  divided  into  seven  chapters,  one  for  each 
day  of  the  week,  and  it  is  an  account  of  an  excur- 
sion up  the  rivers,  undertaken  by  Thoreau  and  his  brother. 
One  of  the  chief  charms  of  the  book  lies  in  the  art  by  which 
Thoreau  takes  his  readers  along  with  him,  interesting  us  in 
every  external  detail  of  the  setting  out,  the  day's  sail,  the 
night's  camp,  the  country;  and  though  he  constantly  breaks  the 
narrative  by  frequent  digressions  upon  history,  philosophy  or 
criticism,  we  resume  the  journey  so  naturally  with  him  that  these 
long  meditations  seem  but  the  proper  whiling  away  of  those 
quiet  hours  on  a  quiet  stream.  It  takes,  however,  wonderful 
literary  craftsmanship  to  blend  such  a  diversity  of  themes  into  a 
harmonious  whole.  '^The  Week"  is  a  book  for  moods.  In  it, 
if  longing  for  the  open,  one  can  enjoy  the  out-of-doors;  if  oppressed 
by  the  ordinary,  one  can  find  fresh  enthusiasms  in  its  simple 
ideals;  if  bored  by  monotony,  it  furnishes  new  thought  on  the  old 
subjects  of  friendship,  religion  and  literature.  Reading  it,  we 
can  but  wonder  at  the  slight  notice  it  received  when  pubUshed, 
for,  out  of  a  thousand  copies  printed,  seven  hundred  came  back 
to  Thoreau,  causing  him  to  say  that  he  had  made  an  addition 
of  seven  hundred  volumes  to  his  library  and  all  of  them  his  own 
composition,  adding  this  characteristic  remark — '*I  believe  that 
this  result  is  more  inspiring  and  better  for  me  than  if  a  thousand 
had  bought  my  wares.  It  affects  my  privacy  less,  and  leaves 
me  freer."  The  remarkable  thing  is  that  he  meant  it. 
"Waiden."  Thoreau's  experiment  of  living  alone  at  Walden 

Pond  has  been  variously  viewed  by  his  friends  and  critics.  Some 
chose  to  regard  it  as  a  fad,  others  as  a  pose.  The  surest  solution 
is  to  take  his  own  statement  as  to  why  he  went  there.     He  says — 

*'  My  purpose  in  going  to  Walden  Pond  was  not  to  live  cheaply 
nor  to  live  dearly  there,  but  to  transact  some  private  business 
with  the  fewest  obstacles." 

The  ''private  business"  was  to  edit  "The  Week."  Channing 
says — 

''The  fact  that  our  author  lived  for  awhile  alone  in  a  shanty 
near  a  pond  or  stagnum,  and  named  one  of  his  books  after  the  place 


72  Graduate  School  Publications. 

where  it  stood,  has  led  some  to  say  he  was  a  barbarian  or  misan- 
thrope. It  was  a  writing  case.  Here,  in  this  wooden  inkstand 
he  wrote  a  good  part  of  his  famous  'Walden.'  In  'Walden' 
we  come  closest  to  Thoreau's  ideals;  the  book  is  the  expression 
of  them.  It  is  his  protest  against  the  extravagances  of  modern 
life ;  his  plea  for  sanity  in  living ;  and  it  is  also  a  revelation  of  the 
kinship  that  existed  between  Thoreau  and  nature.  His  mystical 
allegory  is  familiar  to  the  readers  of  'Walden.' 

'  I  long  ago  lost  a  hound,  a  bay  horse,  and  a  turtle  dove,  and  am 
still  on  their  trail.  Many  are  the  travellers  I  have  spoken  to 
concerning  them,  describing  their  tracks  and  what  calls  they 
respond  to.  I  have  met  one  or  two  who  had  heard  the  hound,  and 
the  tramp  of  the  horse,  and  even  seen  the  dove  disappear  behind 
the  cloud,  and  they  seemed  as  anxious  to  recover  them  as  if  they 
had  lost  them  themselves.'" 

Says  Samuel  Arthur  Jones — 

''Alas  for  us  all!  they  had  lost  them,  even  as  we  have;  for  what 
is  the  hound  but  the  divine  scent  that  finds  the  trail;  what  the 
bay  horse  but  sagacity  and  strength  to  carry  us  in  pursuit;  what 
the  turtle  dove  but  innocence  to  secure  the  divine  protection? 
And  we  have  lost  them  all.     Are  we  still  on  the  trail? 

Thoreau  kept  there  'till  he  disappeared  behind  the  cloud.'" 

His  prose  I  wish  that  time  would  permit  me  to  treat  of  the 

style.  humor  and  insight  of  his  Cape  Cod,  the  particular 

charm  of  his  journals,  the  artistic  value  of  his  various  essays, 
but  it  is  necessary  to  pass  on  to  a  consideration  of  the  qualities 
of  his  prose  style. 

Thoreau's  style,  like  his  life  and  thought,  is  marked  by  purity 
and  simplicity.  He  had  a  broad  knowledge  of  literature  and  his 
preferences  were  the  early  poets  and  prose  writers.     He  writes — 

"We  cannot  escape  the  impression  that  the  Muse  has  stopped 
a  little  in  her  flight,  when  we  come  to  the  literature  of  civilized 
eras.  .  .  .  When  we  come  to  the  pleasant  English  verse,  the 
storms  have  all  cleared  away,  and  it  will  never  thunder  and  lighten 
any  more.  The  poet  has  come  within  doors,  and  exchanged  the 
forest  and  crag  for  the  fireside,  the  hut  of  the  Gael  and  Stonehenge, 
with  its  circles  of  stones,  for  the  house  of  the  Englishman." 

Thoreau  from  his  reading  had  acquired  an  admiration  for 
certain  authors — a  fine  discrimination  of  literary  values,  but 
it  is  significant  that  his  own  writings  present  no  imitation,  and 
as  a  styHst  he  belongs  to  no  particular  school.  He  asks — -"Shall 
I  not  have  words  as  fresh  as  my  thoughts?  Shall  I  use  any 
other  man's  word?     A  genuine  thought  or  feeling  would  find 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  73 

expression  for  itself,  if  it  had  to  invent  hierogliphics."  Thoreau 
was  a  master  in  leaving  out  the  unessential.  He  never  in- 
dulged in  a  pretty  phrase  nor   a   sentimentality.     Stevenson 

says — 

''Upon  me  this  pure,  narrow,  ascetic  Thoreau  had  exercised  a 
great  charm:  I  have  scarce  written  ten  sentences  since  I  was 
introduced  to  him  but  his  influence  might  be  detected." 

Thoreau  had  a  great  respect  for  sentences,  of  which  he  says — 

''A  perfectly  healthy  sentence,  it  is  true  is  extremely  rare. 
For  the  most  part  we  miss  the  hue  and  the  fragrance  of  the 
thought.  .  .  .  The  most  attractive  sentences  are,  perhaps, 
not  the  wisest,  but  the  surest  and  the  roundest. 

The  scholar  may  be  sure  that  he  writes  the  tougher  truth  for 
the  calluses  on  his  palms.  They  give  firmness  to  the  sentence. 
We  are  often  struck  by  the  force  and  precision  of  style  to  which 
hard-working  men,  unpractised  in  writing,  easily  attain  when  re- 
quired to  make  the  effort.  .  .  .  The  sentences  written  by 
such  rude  hands  are  nervous  and  tough,  the  sinews  of  the  deer, 
or  the  roots  of  the  pine." 

His  Applying  these  ideals  to  his  own  writings,  Thoreau 

paragraphs,  produced  that  effect  of  ease,  which  is  only  to  be  at- 
tained by  the  laborious  casting  and  recasting  of  sentences  and 
paragraphs.  His  paragraphs  are  models  of  careful  construction. 
I  shall  quote  a  paragraph  upon  the  subject  of  literary  themes. 

"Men  commonly  exaggerate  the  theme.  Some  themes  they 
think  are  significant,  and  others  insignificant.  I  feel  that  my  life 
is  very  homely,  my  pleasures  very  cheap.  Joy  and  sorrow,  suc- 
cess and  failure,  grandeur  and  meanness,  and  indeed  most  words 
in  the  English  language,  do  not  mean  for  me  what  they  do  for 
my  neighbours.  I  see  that  my  neighbours  look  with  compassion 
on  me,  that  they  think  it  is  a  mean  and  unfortunate  destiny  which 
makes  me  walk  in  these  fields  and  woods  so  much,  and  sail  on 
this  river  alone.  But  so  long  as  I  find  here  the  only  real  elysium, 
I  cannot  hesitate  in  my  choice.  My  work  is  writing,  and  I  do 
not  hesitate  though  I  know  that  no  subject  is  to  trivial  for  me, 
tried  by  ordinary  standards;  for,  ye  fools!  the  theme  is  nothing, 
the  life  is  everything.  All  that  interests  the  reader  is  the  depth 
and  intensity  of  the  life  exerted.  We  touch  our  subject  by  a 
point  which  has  no  breadth,  but  the  pyramid  of  our  experience, 
or  our  interest  in  it,  rests  on  us  by  a  broader  or  narrower  base. 
What  is  man  is  all  in  all,  nature  nothing  but  as  she  draws  him 
out  and  reflects  him.  Give  me  the  simple,  cheap  and  homely 
themes." 


74  Graduate  School  Publications. 

His  Thoreau  varied  his  sentence  length  with  wonderful 

sentences.  gj^jj^  ^j^^  J  j^now  no  Writer  more  adept  in  the  con- 
struction of  exceedingly  long  sentences  which  are  at  the  same 
time  not  in  the  least  involved  as  to  meaning.  Here  is  a  sentence 
of  one  hundred  and  sixty-three  words. 

X  ''Many  waves  are  there  agitated  by  the  winds,  keeping  nature 
fresh,  the  spray  blowing  in  your  face,  reeds  and  rushes  waving; 
ducks  by  the  hundred,  all  uneasy  in  the  surf,  in  the  raw  wind, 
just  ready  to  rise,  and  now  going  off  with  a  clatter  and  a  whistling 
like  riggers  straight  from  Labrador,  flying  against  the  stiff  gale 
with  reefed  wings,  or  else  circling  round  first,  with  all  their 
paddles  briskly  moving,  just  over  the  surf,  to  reconnoitre  you 
before  they  leave  these  parts;  gulls  wheeling  overhead,  muskrats 
swimming  for  dear  life,  wet  and  cold,  with  no  fire  to  warm  them 
by  that  you  know  of;  their  labored  homes  rising  here  and  there 
like  haystacks;  and  countless  mice  and  moles  and  winged  titmice 
along  the  sunny,  windy  shore;  cranberries  tossed  on  the  waves 
and  heaving  up  on  the  beach,  their  little  skiffs  beating  about 
among  the  alders; — such  healthy,  natural  tumult  as  proves  the 
last  day  is  not  yet  at  hand." 

Lowell  says  (and  it  is  the  only  just  thing  he  does  say  of 
Thoreau) — 

''There  are  sentences  of  his  as  perfect  as  anything  in  the  lang- 
uage, and  thoughts  as  clearly  crystallized." 

The  choice  of  these  perfect  sentences  is  difficult  for  they  are 
so  many.  Of  them  all  I  have  culled  the  following  for  their  dic- 
tion, or  rhythm,  or  poetic  suggestiveness. 

/  "At  length  the  antepenultimate  and  drowsy  hours  drew  on, 

and  all  the  sounds  were  denied  entrance  to  our  ears." 

"Gradually  the  village  murmur  subsided,  and  we  seemed  to 
be  embarked  upon  the  placid  current  of  our  dreams,  floating  from 
past  to  future  as  silently  as  one  awakes  to  fresh  morning  or  even- 
ing thoughts." 

''The  buds  swell  imperceptibly,  without  hurry  or  confusion' 
as  if  the  short  spring  days  were  an  eternity." 

"Some  hours  seem  not  to  be  occasion  for  any  deed,  but  for 
resolves  to  draw  breath  in." 

"The  light  gradually  forsook  the  deep  water,  as  well  as  the 
deeper  air,  and  the  gloaming  came  to  the  fishes  as  well  as  to  us, 
and  more  dim  and  gloomy  to  them,  whose  day  is  a  perpetual 
twilight,  though  sufficiently  bright  for  their  weak  and  watery 
eyes." 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  75 

"The  morning  wind  for  ever  blows,  the  poem  of  creation  is 
uninterrupted;  but  few  are  the  ears  that  hear  it." 

"  How  unsupportable  would  be  the  days,  if  the  night  with  its 
dews  and  darkness  did  not  come  to  restore  the  drooping  world.'' 

I  dare  not  begin  to  quote  passages  to  show  his  poetic  inter- 
pretation of  nature — ^for  they  defy  choosing.  I  must  add  just 
two  brush  strokes  with  which  he  depicts  the  birds. 

"The  bluebird  carries  the  sky  on  his  back." 

"  The  tanager  flies  through  the  green  foliage  as  if  it  would  ignite 
the  leaves." 

Muitum  We  find  in  all  his  works  the  frequent  philosophical 

inparvo.  summiug-up  of  a  subject,  a  broad  generalization — 
muitum  in  parvo.  There  is  much  of  this  in  the  essay  on  Friend- 
ship in  Wednesday  of  "The  Week,"  as  where  he  says — 

"Friendship  is  evanescent  in  every  man's  experience  and 
remembered  like  heat  lightning  in  past  summers." 

"A  friend  is  one  who  incessantly  pays  us  the  compliment  of 
expecting  from  us  all  the  virtues,  and  who  can  appreciate  them 
in  us." 

"The  friend  asks  no  return  but  that  his  friend  will  religiously 
accept  and  wear  and  not  disgrace  his  apothesis  of  him.  They 
cherish  each  other's  hopes.  They  are  kind  to  each  other's 
dreams." 

"Walden"  too  is  rich  in  such  passages.     I  shall  quote  only  one. 

"To  be  a  philosopher  is  not  merely  to  have  subtle  thoughts, 
nor  even  to  found  a  school,  but  so  to  love  wisdom  as  to  live  ac- 
cording to  its  dictates,  a  life  of  simplicity,  magnanimity  and 
trust." 

Quotabiuty.  Thorcau's  work  is  a  splendid  example  of  a  style 
characterized  by  quotabiUty,  as  evinced  in  such  sentences  as — 

"Poetry  is  the  mysticism  of  mankind."  // 

"Our  life  is  frittered  away  by  detail."  I V 

"The  unconsciousness  of  man  is  the  consciousness  of  God." 
"Superfluous  wealth  can  buy  superfluities  only.     Money  is 

not  required  to  buy  one  necessary  of  the  soul." 

"How  can  we  expect  a  harvest  of  thought,  who  have  not  had  a 

seed-time  of  character?" 

"Only  he  can  be  trusted  with  gifts  who  can  present  a  face  of 

bronze  to  expectations." 


76  Graduate  School  Puhlications. 

Satire.  jjg    occasionally    indulges    in    satire.     One    such 

instance — aimed  against  modern  novel  readers  is  worth  quoting — 

"They  read  the  nine  thousandth  tale  about  Zebulon  and  Se- 
phronia,  and  how  they  loved  as  none  had  ever  loved  before,  and 
neither  did  the  course  of  their  true  love  run  smooth, — at  any 
rate,  how  it  did  run  and  stumble,  and  get  up  again  and  go  on! 
how  some  poor  unfortunate  got  up  on  to  a  steeple,  who  had  better 
never  have  gone  as  far  as  the  belfry;  and  then  having  needlessly 
got  him  up  there,  the  happy  novelist  rings  the  bell  for  all  the 
world  to  come  together  and  hear,  oh  dear!  how  he  did  get  down 
again!  For  my  part ;  I  think  that  they  had  better  metamorphose 
all  such  spring  heroes  of  universal  noveldom  into  man  weather- 
cocks, as  they  used  to  put  heroes  among  the  constellations  and 
let  them  swing  round  and  round  until  they  are  rusty,  and  not 
come  down  at  all  to  bother  honest  men  with  their  pranks.  The 
next  time  the  novelist  rings  the  bell  I  will  not  stir  though  the 
meeting  house  burn  down.  'The  Skip  of  the  Tip-Toe-Hop'  a 
Romance  of  the  Middle  Ages,  by  the  celebrated  author  of 
'Tittle-Tol-Tan,'  to  appear  in  monthly  parts;  a  great  rush;  don't 
all  come  together.' " 

Humor.  Lowell  finds  no  humor  in  Thoreau's  pages.     Some 

critics  find  only  his  ''Cape  Cod"  humorous.  It  seems  to  me  that 
all  his  works  are  pervaded  by  a  humor,  which  one  critic  calls 
''a  pleasant  sour"  but  which  seems  to  me  to  be  rather  the 
quizzical  humor  of  the  true  New  Englander,  for  whom  the  gro- 
tesque or  the  droll  had  a  special  appeal.  It  has  been  a  pleasure 
to  collect  some  of  these  subtle  humorous  flashes  which  brighten 
his  pages.     I  can  quote  only  a  few, — 

"There  is  no  kind  of  herb,  but  somebody  or  other  says  that 
it  is  good.  I  am  very  glad  to  hear  it.  It  reminds  me  of  the  first 
chapter  of  Genesis." 

"Who  has  not  seen  a  salt  fish,  thoroughly  cured  for  this  world, 
so  that  nothing  can  spoil  it,  and  putting  the  perseverance  of 
the  saints  to  blush?  With  which  you  may  sweep  or  pave  the 
streets,  and  split  your  kindlings,  and  the  teamster  shelter  him- 
self and  his  lading  against  the  sun,  wind  and  rain  behind  it, — 
and  the  trader,  as  a  Concord  trader  once  did,  hang  it  up  by  his 
door  for  a  sign  when  he  commences  business,  until  at  last  his 
oldest  customer  cannot  tell  surely  whether  it  be  animal,  vegetable 
or  mineral,  and  yet  it  shall  be  pure  as  a  snow  flake,  and  if  put 
into  a  pot  and  boiled,  will  come  out  an  excellent  done  fish  for  a 
Saturday's  dinner." 

"I  have  had  twenty-five  or  thirty  souls,  with  their  bodies, 
at  once  under  my  roof." 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  77 

''This  coach  was  an  exceedingly  narrow  one,  but  as  there  was  a 
slight  spherical  excess  over  two  on  a  seat,  the  driver  waited  imtil 
nine  passengers  had  got  in,  without  taking  the  measure  of  any 
of  them,  and  then  shut  the  door  after  two  or  three  ineffectual 
slams,  as  if  the  fault  were  all  in  the  hinges  and  the  latch, — while 
we  timed  our  inspirations  and  expirations  so  as  to  assist  him." 

There  was  'Hhe  Woman  who  looked  as  if  it  made  her  head  ache 
to  live,"  and  the  meeting  house  of  which  he  says:  ''Its  windows 
being  open,  my  meditations  were  interrupted  by  the  noise  of  a 
preacher  who  shouted  like  a  boatswain,  profaning  the  quiet 
atmosphere,  and  who,  I  fancied,  must  have  taken  off  his  coat. 
Few  things  could  have  been  more  discouraging  and  disheartening. 
I  wished  the  tithing-man  would  stop  him,"  and  houses  which 
were  "surrounded  by  fish-flakes  close  up  to  the  sills,  so  that  in- 
stead of  looking  out  into  a  flower  or  grass  plot,  you  looked  into  so 
many  square  rods  of  cod  turned  wrong  side  outwards.  These 
parterres  were  said  to  be  least  like  a  flower-garden  in  a  good  dry- 
ing day  in  midsummer." 

Another  charm  for  me  lies  in  his  surprises — the  unexpected 
which  suddenly  confronts  one  in  reading  him,  like  the  follow- 
ing— 

"What  risks  we  run!  famine,  fire  and  pestilence,  and  the 
thousand  forms  of  a  cruel  fate, — and  yet  every  man  lives  till 
he     .     .     .     dies." 

"A  man  sits  as  many  risks  as  he  runsJ^ 

"God  is  alone, — but  the  devil,  he  is  far  from  being  alone; 
he  sees  a  great  deal  of  company." 

"Some  circumstantial  evidence  is  very  strong,  as  when  you 
find  a  trout  in  the  milk." 

"You  might  make  a  curious  list  of  articles  which  fishes  have 
swallowed, — sailors'  open  clasp  knives,  and  bright  tin  snuff 
boxes,  not  knowing  what  is  in  them, — and  jugs,  and  jewels, 
and  Jonah.'' 

Is  not  all  this  enough  to  endear  him  to  us?  I  can  but  feel  that 
Thoreau  is  neglected,  and  that  it  is  because  some  people  have 
obtained  a  false  view  of  him  by  seeing  him  through  the  eyes 
of  those  critics  who  have  not  done  him  justice.  It  will  be  well 
for  our  authors  when  American  criticism  becomes  an  art  in  the 
hands  of  the  lay  readers,  for  then  our  Thoreaus  shall  not  have 
lived  in  vain. 

No  writers  have  equalled  the  Americans  in  the  field  of  nature- 
books.     To  Thoreau  belongs  the  honor  of  having  found  a  new 


78  Graduate  School  Publications. 

and  interpretative  way  of  writing  about  nature,  and  he  still 
excels  his  successors  in  this  field.  As  a  stylist,  we  have  no 
more  admirable  writer  in  our  American  literature.  But,  after 
all,  is  not  his  most  tonic  influence  in  the  field  of  personality  and 
thought?  No  other  writer  has  so  decried  the  falsity  of  the  non- 
essential, and  so  held  up  the  ideal  of  individuahty.     He  says — 

''Why  should  we  be  in  such  desperate  haste  to  succeed  and  in 
such  desperate  enterprises?  If  a  man  does  not  keep  pace  with 
his  companions,  perhaps  it  is  because  he  hears  a  different  drum- 
mer. Let  him  step  to  the  music  which  he  hears,  however 
measured  or  far  away." 

Truly  Thoreau  himself  ''heard  a  different  drummer,"  and  his 
life  and  his  books  can  do  much  in  helping  us  to  get  rid  of  our  false 
estimates. 

John  Thoreau's  most  famous  successor  in  the  field  of  the 

Burroughs.  Nature  Essay  is  John  Burroughs,  who  surpasses  his 
predecessor,  if  viewed  merely  on  the  side  of  personality.  No  other 
Nature-writar  has  so  won  the  affection  and  admiration  of  his 
•  readers.  He  writes  of  Nature — birds  and  bees  and  wee  friendly 
animals,  fields  and  woods  and  simple  living — and  yet,  in  all  his 
essays,  he  grants  us  the  pleasure  of  his  own  companionship  in  a 
manner  so  friendly  that  no  suggestion  of  pride  or  self-conscious- 
ness mars  the  genuine  charm  of  his  style.  Burroughs,  faithful 
to  that  diversity  of  subjects  which  characterizes  the  works  of  all 
true  essayists,  also  turns  his  attention  to  literature,  philosophy 
and  religion.  His  appreciations  of  Emerson  and  Whitman  are 
unsurpassed,  and  his  criticism  of  Carlyle,  Burns  and  Wordsworth 
are  truly  interpretative.  The  difference  between  the  English 
and  the  American  attitude  tgward  nature  is  admirably  ex- 
pressed by  Burroughs  when,  he  says  in  Fresh  Fields  (a  study  of 
British  scenes)  that  he  found  the  British  muse  of  nature  to  be  "a 
gentle,  wholesome,  slightly  stupid  divinity  of  the  fields,"  while 
our  own  poetry  of  nature  he  characterizes  as  marked  by  "a  piney, 
woodsey  flavor  that  is  unknown  in  the  older  literatures."  Bur- 
roughs's  style  is  truly  American.  It  is  clear  and  forceful,  free  of 
urbanity,  but  brightened  by  many  unexpected  shades  of  meaning 
and  piquant  flashes  of  humor  which  partly  atone  for  the  lack  of 
those  higher  qualities  of  power,  passion  and  imagination  which 
rank  Thoreau  above  him  in  literary  craftsmanship. 
The  Personal  Bcsides  the  cssays  in  the  field  of  Criticism,  the  class 
Essayists.        ^f  writers  representing  both   Critical   and   Personal 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  79 

essays,  the  Transcendental  and  Nature  essayists,  the  Nineteenth 
Century  produced  essays  which  have  their  kinship  with  the  more 
purely  Personal  Essays  as  found  in  England  in  the  works  of  Lamb 
and  Stevenson,  and  descending  from  Irving  in  our  own  literature. 
These  essays  embody  the  everyday  observations  and  meditations 
of  thoughtful  men,  who  illuminated  their  pages  now  and  then 
with  quiet  narrative,  and  descriptive  elements. 
Walt  Whitman.  The  prose  writings  of  Walt  Whitman  are  a  connect- 
ing Unk  between  the  classes  we  have  already  noted,  and  the 
Essay  of  Personality  which  remains  to  be  considered.  In  his 
essays.  Whitman  ventured  into  criticism  and  philosophy,  frat- 
ernized with  humanity,  communed  with  nature  and  idolized  his 
native  land  in  a  manner  that  marks  him  as  a  literary  descendant 
of  Emerson  and  Thoreau.  But  he  strikes  the  personal  note 
more  strongly  than  any  of  the  writers  of  these  classes.  To  under- 
stand Whitman  and  his  poetry,  one  must  turn  to  his  prose.  His 
complete  prose  works  include  the  Specimen  Days,  Notes  Left 
Over,  Pieces  in  Early  Youth,  November  Boughs,  Good-bye  to 
Fancy,  and  Some  Laggards  Yet.  Taken  together  these  aim  to 
present  a  complete  picture  of  humanity  as  he  knew  it  in  his  own 
land  and  times.  Among  formless  jottings,  there  are  more  elabo- 
rate pieces  which  assume  the  Essay  proportions.  In  all  of  them, 
whether  they  be  reminiscences  of  his  army  days,  experiences  in 
country  or  city,  or  reflections  concerning  literature  and  life — he 
is  autobiographical  and  ranks  among  our  personal  essayists.  His 
prose  is  not  elegant  but  it  represents  the  style  of  a  healthy,  typ- 
ical American.  His  ramblings  made  him  dear  to  those  lovers  of 
the  Personal  Essayists,  who  delight  to  browse  in  such  books  as 
these.  His  chief  claim  to  recognition  in  a  study  of  the  American 
Essay  lies  in  the  fact  that  his  essays,  more  than  those  of  any 
other  writer  since  Emerson,  are  unmistakably  American  in 
thought  and  style.  Even  in  his  critical  papers  ^  he  is  searching 
only  for  the  Hterature  which  can  be  of  service  to  his  beloved 
America.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  other  land  could  have  pro- 
duced his  two  volumes  of  essays. 

Nathaniel  Whitman  was  autobiographical,  but  he  lacked  the 

Hawthorne,     quietly  Contemplative  nature  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

1  The  critical  essays  bear  the  following  titles  Emerson's  Books  {the  shadows 
of  them),  The  Bible  as  Poetry,  What  Lurks  Behind  Shakespeare's  Historical 
Plays?  Robert  Burns  as  a  Poet  and  Person,  A  Word  about  Tennyson,  Shakes- 
peare for  America,  etc. 


80  Graduate  School  Publications. 

If  "style  is  the  man,'*  we  may  account  for  the  fact  that  Whitman's 
was  full  of  crudities,  while  that  of  Hawthorne  was  so  perfect  as 
-to  rank  his  works  among  the  classics  of  literature.  Though 
Hawthorne's  chief  fame  lies  in  the  path  of  the  novel,  some  of 
his  more  artistic  productions  are  pure  essays,  and  we  may  say 
that  he  perfected  the  Personal  Essay  of  the  narrative  and  descrip- 
tive type  in  our  literature,  which  has  received  no  richer  legacy 
than  such  essays  as  his  Rill  from  the  Town  Pump,  Sights  from 
a  Steeple,  The  Toll-Gatherer's  Day,  The  Sister  Years,  Night 
Sketches,  and  others  equally  dear  to  his  readers.  He  also  wrote 
a  less  popular  volume  of  essays  on  English  life,  known  as  Our 
Old  Home.  The  repose  of  his  essays  is  the  outcome  of  his 
thoughtful  personality.  As  Poe  said,  ''he  never  surpassed  the 
limitations  of  the  quiet."  He  is  our  master  artist  in  style,  and 
as  such,  he  succeeded  in  lifting  the  American  Personal  Essay  of 
narration  into  the  classical  ranks  with  Lamb  and  Hunt  and 
Stevenson. 

GUver  Wendeu  But  these  last  named  English  essayists  never  con- 
Hoimes.  fined  themselves  to  writing  mere  narrative  and  reflect- 
ive descriptions  of  what  they  saw  so  suggestively  in  the  outside 
world.  Since  the  days  of  Montaigne,  the  Personal  Essayists 
have  been  at  their  best  when  they  sank  into  their  ''Hterary  arm 
chair"  and  chatted  familiarly  with  the  reader  upon  all  sorts  of 
subjects.  American  literature  is  as  yet  of  too  brief  a  history 
and  the  years  of  its  growth  have  been  too  troubled  and  full  of  the 
business  of  life  to  produce  many  men  who  could  surrender  them- 
selves to  the  ''wise  and  airy  leisure"  that  would  permit  them  to 
neglect  all  purposeful  motives  and  talk  to  us  in  their  essays  seem- 
ingly for  the  mere  love  of  talking.  But  a  few  American  essayists 
have  been  content  just  to  chat  awhile.  Most  prominent  of  these 
is  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  who,  by  virtue  of  literary  ramblings 
and  discursiveness,  deserves  to  be  ranked  among  the  Personal 
Essayists,  though  his  works  are  of  a  kind  that  almost  defies 
classification.  Neither  The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table, 
nor  its  successors  in  the  same  field,  The  Poet  at  the  Breakfast 
Table  and  Over  the  Tea  Cups,  can  be  considered  as  extended 
essays,  and  their  varied  contents  are  too  strongly  held  together 
by  the  threads  of  narrative  and  character  to  permit  us  to  isolate 
certain  Essay  passages.  They  belong  among  the  miscellaneous 
books  of  our  literature,  but  we  must  nevertheless  recognize  their 
spirit  as  identical  with  that  of  the  Personal  Essay.     Every  Man 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  81 

his  own  Boswell  is  the  humorous  motto  which  Holmes  prefixed 
to  the  first  of  his  Autocrat  series,  and  the  book  lives  up  to  the 
motto.  If  Holmes  had  possessed  less  originality  in  inventing 
a  method  of  expression  all  his  own,  he  would  certainly  have 
ranked  as  the  foremost  of  our  writers  in  the  field  of  the  familiarly 
Personal  Essay. 

Donald  Grant  ^he  purely  Personal  Essays,  if  they  attain  to  any 
Mitchell.  recognizable  degree  of  artistic  merit  become  dearer 
(Ik  Marvel,  ^j^^^  ^^^  othcrs  in  their  generation,  and  no  Nine- 
teenth Century  essays  obtained  a  larger  circulation  than  did  the 
Reveries  of  a  Bachelor  and  the  Dream  Life  of  Donald  Grant 
Mitchell  C'lk  Marvel")-  Their  author  was  a  born  man  of 
letters,  and  a  typical  Personal  Essayist,  for  he  wrote  with  no 
didactic  aim  in  view,  but  with  a  mere  desire  to  express  himself 
and  add  to  the  joy  of  fife  and  the  pleasure  of  his  readers.  Like 
Irving's,  his  essays  are  pervaded  by  a  ''fine  old-fashioned  flavor." 
There  is  charm  and  atmosphere  and  emotion  in  his  pages,  be-  j 
sides  the  revelation  of  a  personality  at  once  worthy  of  both  love  ■ 
and  admiration.  In  their  complete  freedom  from  all  traces  of  , 
the  hurry  and  strenuousness  of  modern  life,  these  essays  are 
unique  in  their  day,  and  we  wish  that  American  literature  in- 
cluded more  of  them  than  the  few  which  remain  to  be  mentioned. 
Qtjjgy  Charles  Dudley  Warner  is  another  essayist  whose 

Personal  kiuship  is  with  Irviug.  His  essays  are  pervaded  by  a 
ssayists.  delicate  humor,  which  is  best  illustrated  in  his  My 
Summer  in  a  Garden.  The  Backlog  Studies  are  delightful 
essays,  and,  as  their  title  would  indicate,  they  are  the  intimate 
fireside  conversations  in  which  the  author  reveals  to  his  reader  an 
interesting  and  charming  personality.  The  Ponkapog  Papers 
of  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich  are  Personal  Essays  of  a  texture  so  fine 
and  deUcate  that  the  reader  wishes  their  author  had  devoted 
more  of  his  literary  talents  to  prose  of  this  kind.  The  same  might 
be  said  of  the  prose  papers  scattered  among  the  Poems  and 
Fancies  of  Edward  Everett  Hale. 

Lafcadio  The  transition  of  the  essays  of  the  present   day 

Hearn.  brings  US  to  the  consideration  of  a  writer  whose  death 

occurred  while  the  century  was  new.  The  essays  of  Lafcadio 
Hearn  do  not  fall  into  any  of  the  general  classifications  which 
have  been  assumed.  They  are  the  exotic  plants  of  our  modern 
literature.  Hearn  longed  "to  create  something  in  English — anal- 
ogous to  that  warmth  and  color  and  richness  of  imagery  hitherto 


82  Graduate  School  Publications. 

peculiar  to  Latin  literature,"  and  he  succeeded  in  doing  just  that, 
especially  in  his  elusive  and  weirdly  beautiful  interpretations  of 
Japanese  life  and  literature.  He  was  essentially  a  mystic  and 
a  seer,  and  his  style  was  the  perfect  expression  of  a  temperament 
which  found  its  chief  delight  in  things  detached,  intangible  and 
impenetrable.  It  is  the  color  and  the  beauty  of  the  Orient,  and 
the  echoes  of  forgotten  sighs  and  tears  which  pervade  his  pages. 
The  Essays  It  is  impossible  to   assign  a  definite  place  in  the 

of  To-day.  history  of  the  American  Essay  to  those  essays  which 
are  being  written  at  the  present  time.  The  fate  of  once  popular 
Nineteenth  Century  essayists,  whose  work  is  now  almost  forgotten, 
proves  how  futile  is  the  expectation  that  the  judgment  and  taste 
of  posterity  will  confirm  our  own  conclusions;  and  it  is  not  profit- 
able to  estimate  the  work  of  Uving  writers,  unless  it  be  of  such  as 
may  have  ''found  themselves"  and  already  reached  their  highest 
literary  achievement.  But  the  best  always  endures,  and  our 
Essay  of  the  present  day  is  in  the  hands  of  writers  who  represent 
each  class  of  its  development.  The  Nature  Essays  are  being 
continued  by  Charles  Conrad  Abbott,  and  in  a  less  scientific  way 
by  Hamilton  W.  Mabie  and  Henry  Van  Dyke.  No  form  of  Essaj' 
has  proved  so  exclusively  American  as  this  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  mantle  of  Thoreau  may  some  day  fall  upon  men  who  are 
able  to  attain  the  standards  which  he  set.  Hamilton  W.  Mabie 
and  Dr.  Van  Dyke  also  represent  the  critical  and  personal  types. 
The  best-loved  Essay  of  Discursive  Personality  is  receiving  new 
vitality  in  the  delightful  essays  of  Agnes  Repplier  and  Samuel 
McChord  Crothers.  The  Critical  Essay  seems  to  be  establishing 
itseK  upon  a  more  enduring  basis  than  any  of  these.  We  have 
noted  that  the  Nineteenth  Century  produced  only  Whipple  who 
devoted  his  entire  talent  to  criticism.  It  is  significant  that,  after 
so  many  intervening  years,  another  writer  has  appeared  thus 
early  in  the  Twentieth  Century,  with  a  like  ardor  and  gift  for 
criticism  impelling  him  to  make  it  his  life  profession.  The 
Shelburne  E.ssays  of  Paul  Elmer  More  represent  a  new  uplift 
in  American  literary  methods.  The  curse  of  American  tempera- 
ment has  been  its  lack  of  thoroughness — its  inability  to  carry 
on  detailed  and  continued  investigation — its  poverty  in  that  con- 
centration by  which  the  European  mind  attains  far-reaching 
results.  It  bodes  well  for  our  future  when  a  contemporary  writer 
brings  to  bear  upon  his  subjects  the  thorough  and  varied  knowl- 
edge which  is  evinced  in  the  essays  of  Mr.  More.     If  it  were  their 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  83 

superficiality  which  killed  hundreds  of  the  American  essays  which 
are  recorded  in  my  Bibliography,  and  which  have  sunk  into 
oblivion,  it  is  safe  to  predict  that  work  so  thorough  as  Mr.  More's 
will  endure  and  prove  a  tonic  influence,  not  perhaps  in  the  literary 
style,  but  in  the  thought  of  the  future. 

The  Future  And  what  is  the  future  of  the  Essay  as  a  form  of 

of  the  Essay,  literary  expression?  There  are  many  who  prophesy 
that  it  is  falling  into  disuse;  that  it  is  being  supplanted  by  other 
kinds  of  writing.  '^The  Passing  of  the  Essay"  and  ''The  Decay 
of  the  Essay"  are  favorite  subjects  for  discussion.  The  pre- 
vailing argument  against  its  future  is  based  upon  the  fact  that 
modern  life  is  too  strenuous  to  foster  a  form  of  writing  that  re- 
quires a  meditative  and  contemplative  mood  for  its  inspiration." 
But  Essays  as  we  have  seen,  have  always  existed  in  literature 
and  the  product  of  the  ages  is  not  to  be  easily  eradicated.  It 
is  true  that  life,  and  especially  American  life,  becomes  more  and 
more  a  clash  and  complexity,  but  the  Essay's  chief  claim  to 
permanence  is  its  ability  to  interpret  any  of  life's  phases,  and 
amid  all  the  breathlessly  toiling  thousands,  there  are  always  a 
few  who  stand  apart,  looking  on  and  thinking.  Our  very  lack 
of  leisure  is  multiplying  our  Essays  which  are,  for  many  readers, 
a  short-cut  to  culture.  The  growing  number  of  periodicals 
creates  a  constant  demand  for  this  form  of  writing.  It  would 
seem  that  the  future  of  the  American  essay  is  assured. 
Conclusion.  We  began  this  study  with  an  unsatisfied  search  for 

a  definition  of  the  Essay  as  it  appears  in  literature.  The  answer 
has  evolved  itself  from  the  study  represented  in  these  pages. 
An  Essay  is  the  suggestive  expression  of  a  contemplative  personality, 
in  a  prose  composition  of  adequate  length  to  present  whatever  aspect 
of  a  subject  the  author  has  in  mind.  It  stands  in  the  history  of  the 
world's  literature  as  the  most  fitting  monument  to  the  intellectual 
personality  of  the  Individual  in  the  passing  generations. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Section     I.     References  and  Authorities. 

Section    II.     Magazine  Articles  on  the  Essay. 

Section  III.     Early    American    Newspapers    and    Periodicals 
containing  Essays. 

Section  IV.     American  Essayists  including, — 

(a)  Early  Essayists. 

(b)  Major  Modern  Essayists. 

(c)  Supplementary  List    of    Minor   American 

Essayists. 

SECTION   I. 
REFERENCES  AND   AUTHORITIES. 

4r  AuRELius,  Marcus. 

The  Meditations  of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  Antonius. 

2nd  Edition.     Glasgow,  1769. 
If  Bacon,  Sir  Francis. 

The   Essaies  of  Sir   Francis  Bacon,   Knight,   The   King's 

Solliciter  Generall.     Imprinted  at  London  by  John  Beale, 

1612.     4th  Edition. 
Broenell,  W.  C. 

American  Prose  Masters.     New  York,  1909. 
Burton,  R. 

The  Anatomy  of  Melancholy.     7th  Edition,  London,  1660. 
•^f  Caxton. 

Caxton's  Eneydos.     1490.     English  from  the  French  Livre 

des  Eneydos,  1483.     Edited  by  W.  T.  Culley  and  F.  T. 

Furnivall.     London,  1890. 
•V  Chaucer. 

The  Canterbury  Tales  of  Chaucer.     Oxford,  1798. 
Critical  Review,  The. 

Volume  26,  London.     1768. 
Dawson,  William  J.  and  Dawson,  Coningsby,  W. 

The  Great  EngHsh  Essayists.     New  York  and  London,  1909. 
Donne,  John. 

Essays  on  Divinity.      Edited  by  Augustus  Jesopp,  London, 

1855. 
DuNLAP,  William. 

The  Life  of  Charles  Brockden  Brown:  Together  with  selec- 
tions from  the  Rarest  of  his  Printed  Works.     Philadelphia, 

1815. 


86  Graduate  School  Publications. 

\  Eliot,  John. 

The  Indian  Grammar  Begun:  Or  an  Essay  to  Bring  the 
Indian  Language  into  Rules.     Cambridge,  1666. 

Evans,  Charles. 

American  Bibliography.     Vols.  1-5,  Chicago,  1903. 

Evans,  Lewis. 

Geographical,  Historical,  Political,  Philosophical  and  Me- 
chanical Essays.     Philadelphia,  1756. 

Federalist,  The. 

New  York,  1901.     (The  World's  Great  Classics  Series.) 

Feltham,  Owen,  Esq. 

Resolves:  Divine,  Moral,  Political.     London,  1677. 

FoxE,  John. 

Book  of  Martyrs.     Edited  by  A.  Clarke,  London,  1741. 
^^Gellius,  Aulus. 

The  Attic  Nights  of.  Translated  into  English  by  the  Revd. 
W.  Belloe.     London,  1795. 

Goldsmith,  Oliver. 

The  Citizen  of  the  World,  or  Letters  from  a  Chinese  Phi- 
losopher residing  in  London  to  his  Friends  in  the  East. 
London,  1792. 

Hansche,  Maud  Bingham. 

The  Formative  Period  of  English  Familiar  Letter  Writers, 
and  Their  Contributions  to  the  English  Essay.     Philadel- 
phia, 1902. 
V  Hooker,  Richard. 

Ecclesiastical  Polity.     London,  Routledge,  1888. 

Howell,  James. 

Epistolae  Ho-Elianae.     8th  Edition.     London,  1713. 

Library  (A)  of  American  Literature. 

Compiled  and  Edited  by  Edwin  Charles  Stedman  and  Ellen 
Mackay  Hutchinson.     10  Vols.     New  York,  1889. 

Langhorne,  John,  D.D.,  and  Langhorne,  William,  A.M. 

Plutarch's  Lives.  Translated  from  the  Original  Greek. 
New  York,  1841. 

Latimer,  Hugh. 

Sermons  in  Arber's  English  Reprints.     Vols.  1  and  6. 

Mandeville,  Sir  John. 

Briefe  Collection  of  the  Travels  and  Observations  of. 
Written  by  Master  Beale.     London,  1625. 

Marble,  Annie  Russell,  M.A. 

Heralds  of  American  Literature.     Chicago,   1907. 

Mather,  Increase. 

An  Account  of  the  Remarkable  Providences  in  New  England. 
Boston,  1683-1684. 

Mather,  Samuel. 

Irenicum,  or  an  Essay  for  Union.     London,  1680. 

McMaster,  John  Bach. 

Benjamin  Franklin  as  a  Man  of  Letters.     Boston,  1887. 
(American  Men  of  Letters  Series.) 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  87 

Montaigne. 

The  Essays  of  Michael,  Lord  of  Montaigne,  Translated  by 

John  Florio.     Edited  with  an  Introduction  and  a  Glossary 

by  Henry  Morley.     London,  1893. 
Monthly  Review. 

Vol.  59.     London. 
MouLTON,  Richard  G.,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 

The  Literary  Study  of  the  Bible.     London,  1896. 
Mitchell,  Donald  Grant. 

American  Lands  and  Letters.     New  York,  1898. 
Plutarch. 

Plutarch's  Morals.     Translated  from  the  Greek  by  Several 

Hands.     Corrected  and  Revised  by  William  W.  Goodwin, 

Ph.D.     Boston,  1870. 
Repplier,  Agnes. 

In  The  Dozy  Hours.     Boston,  1894.     (A  Chapter  on  ''The 

Passing  of  the  Essay.") 
Richardson,  Charles  F. 

American  Literature.     1607-1885.     New  York,  1888. 
Sears,  Lorenzo,  L.H.D. 

American  Literature  in  the  Colonial  and  National  Periods. 

Boston,  1902. 
Selections  From. 

The  Spectator,  Tatler,  Guardian  and  Freeholder.     London, 

1804. 
Stanton,  Theodore. 

A  Manual  of  American  Literature.     New  York,  1909. 
Stille,  Charles  Janeway,  LL.D. 

,     The  Life  and  Times  of  John  Dickinson.     Philadelphia,  1891. 
The  Town  Talk.   The  Fish  Pool.    The  Plebeian.    The  Old 

Whig.     The  Spinster,  etc. 

By  the  Authors  of  The  Tatler,  Spectator  and  Guardian, 

Now  First  Collected.     London,  1789. 
Tyler,  Moses  Coit. 

A   History   of   American   Literature   During  the   Colonial 

Time.     New  York,  1897. 

The  Literary  History  of  the  American  Revolution.     New 

York,  1897. 
Wendell,  Barrett. 

A  Literary  History  of  America.     New  York,  1900. 
Whately,  Richard,  D.D. 

Bacon's  Essays  with  Annotations.     New  York,  1863. 
Whitcomb,  Selden  L.,  A.M. 

Chronological  Outlines  of  American  Literature.     New  York, 

1894. 
Xenophon. 

The  Works  of:  Translated  by  H.  G.  Dakyus,  M.A.,  in  4  Vols. 

London,  1897. 


88  Graduate  School  Publications. 

Zeisberger,  David. 

Essay  of  a  Delaware-Indian  and  English  Spelling  Book. 
Philadelphia,  1776. 


SECTION  II. 
MAGAZINE  ARTICLES   ON  THE  ESSAY. 

BowEN,  Edwin  W. 

''The  Essay  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.'^     The  Sewanee 

Review,  Vol.  10,  p.  12. 
Burton,  Richard. 

''The  Essay  as  Mood  and  Form."    The  Forum,  Vol.  XXXII, 

p.  119. 
Clarence,  Theodore. 

"Essays  and  Essay  Writing."     The  Galaxy,  Vol.  I,  p.  577. 
Clarke,  A.  H. 

"Survival  of  Essays."     Poet-Lore,  Vol.  II,  p.  431. 
Clarke,  Charles  Cowden. 

"English  Essayists."     Every  Saturday,  Vol.  I,  p.  536. 
Mabie,  H.  W. 

"The   Essay  and  Some   Essayists."     The   Bookman,  Vol. 

II,  p.  504. 


/   Matthews,  Brander. 


"A  Note  on  the  Essay."     The  Book  Buyer,  Vol.  XVI,  p.  201. 

POSTGATE,    J.    P. 

"The  Ultimate  Derivation  of  Essay."     The  American  Jour- 
nal of  Philology,  Vol.  VI,  p.  462. 
Stephen,  Virginia. 

"The    Decay    of    Essay    Writing."     The    Academy,    Vol. 

LXVIII,  p.  165. 
Watson,  E.  H.  Lacon. 

"The  Essay  Considered  from  an  Artistic  Point  of  View." 

Westminster  Review,  Vol.  CXLI,  p.  558. 
Zabriskie,  Francis  N. 

"The  Essay  as  a  Literary  Form  and  Quality."     The  New 

Princeton  Review,  Vol.  00,  p.  227. 

"The   Essay  Ancient  and  Modern."     The  Academy  and 
Literature,  Vol.  LXIV,  p.  611. 


"The  Ideal  Essay."     The  Author,  Vol.  II,  p.  134. 


"Essay    Writing."     The    North    American    Review,    Vol. 
XIV.     New  Series,  Vol.  V,  p.  319. 


"  The  Prosperity  of  the  Essay."     The  Outlook,  Vol.  LXXXI, 
p.  697. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  89 


"The    English    Essay."     California   University   Chronicle, 
Vol.   1,   p.   383. 


''  Essays  Great  and  Small."    The  Critic,  Vol.  XL VII,  p.  244. 


"  Essayists."     The  Cornhill  Magazine,  Vol.  XLIV,  p.  278. 


''Concerning  Essays."     The  Book  Buyer,  Vol.,  p.  349. 


SECTION   III. 

EARLY  AMERICAN  NEWSPAPERS  AND  PERIODICALS 
CONTAINING   ESSAYS. 

Public  Occurrences,  Boston,  1690. 

The  Boston  News  Letter,  Boston,  1704. 

The  American  Weekly  Mercury,  Philadelphia,  1719. 

The  New  England  Courant,  Boston,  1726. 

The  Universal  Instructor  in  all  Arts  and  Sciences  and  Pennsyl- 
vania Gazette.  (Subsequently  known  as  the  Pennsylvania 
Gazette.)     Philadelphia,  1728-1777. 

The  American  Magazine.     Philadelphia,  1741. 

The  General  Magazine,  and  Historical  Chronicle  for  all  the  Brit- 
ish Plantations  in  America.     Philadelphia,  1741. 

The  Pennsylvania  Journal  or  Weekly  Advertiser,  Philadelphia, 
1747-1748. 

The  Independent  Reflector,  New  York,  1752-1753. 

The  New  York  Gazette  or  the  Weekly  Post  Boy.  New  York, 
1753. 

The  New  York  Mercury.     New  York,  1755. 

The  American  Magazine  and  Monthly  Chronicle  for  the  British 
Colonies.     Philadelphia,  1757-1758. 

The  New  American  Magazine.     Woodbridge,  N.  J.,  1759. 

The  American  Magazine.     Philadelphia,  1769. 

The  Penny  Post.     ,  1769. 

The  Boston  Chronicle.     Boston,  1769. 

The  Royal  American  Magazine.     Boston,  1774-1775. 

The  Pennsylvania  Magazine;  or  American  Monthly  Museum. 
Philadelphia,  1775. 

The  Boston  Gazette.     Boston,  1775. 

The  United  States  Magazine:  A  Repository  of  History,  Politics 
and  Literature.     Vol.  L  for  the  Year  1779. 

The  Freeman's  Journal:  or  North- American  Intellegencer.  Phil- 
adelphia, 1781. 

The  Columbian  Magazine:  or  Monthly  Miscellany,  1786-1787. 

The  Independent  Gazeteer  of  New  York,  New  York,  1787-1788. 

The  American  Museum.     Philadelphia,  1787-1792. 


90  Graduate  School  Publications. 

The  Massachusetts  Magazine:  or  Monthly  Museum  of  Knowl- 
edge and  Rational  Entertainment.     Boston,  1789-1792. 

The  Universal  Asylum  and  Columbian  Magazine.     1790. 

The  National  Gazette.     New  York,  1791-1793. 

The  Diary:  or  Louden's  Register,  New  York,  1792. 

The  New  Hampshire  Journal,  or  The  Farmer's  Museum.  Wal- 
pole.  New  Hampshire,  1793-1797. 

The  Jersey  Chronicle.     1795-1796. 

The  New  World.     Philadelphia,  1797. 

The  American  Universal  Magazine.     Philadelphia,  1797-1798. 

The  Time-Piece  and  Literary  Companion.    New  York,  1797-1798. 

The  Weekly  Magazine  of  Original  Essays,  Fugitive  Pieces  and 
Interesting  Intelligence.     1798-1799. 

The  Monthly  Magazine  and  American  Review,  New  York,  1799- 
1800. 

The  American  Review  and  Literary  Journal  for  the  Year,  New 
York,  1801. 

The  Portfolio,  Philadelphia,  1801-1827. 

The  Boston  Weekly  Magazine,  Boston,  1803. 

The  Literary  Magazine  and  American  Register.  Philadelphia, 
1803-1807. 

The  Anthology  and  Boston  Review.     Boston,  1803-1811. 

The  Literary  Miscellany.     Cambridge,  Mass.,  1805-1806. 

The  American  Register  or  General  Repository  of  History, 
Politics  and  Science.     Philadelphia,  1806-1810. 

SECTION   IV. 
AMERICAN   ESSAYISTS,   Including 

(A)  EARLY  ESSAYISTS.  (B)  MAJOR  MODERN  ESSAY- 
ISTS. 

(C)  SUPPLEMENTARY    LIST    OF    MINOR    AMERICAN 

ESSAYISTS. 

(A)  EARLY  ESSAYISTS. 

Adams,  John. 

Political  Essays  signed  ''Novanglus,"  1775,  and  Others. 

Adams,  Samuel. 

Pohtical  Essays.  Contributed  to  Newspapers  over  Va- 
rious Signatures. 

Ames,  Fisher. 

Works  of.     Boston,  1809. 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden. 

''The  Rhapsodist."  Columbian  Magazine,  1789.  The 
Weekly  Magazine  of  Original  Essays,  Fugitive  Pieces  and 
Interesting  Intelligence.  1798-99,  and  other  Periodicals, 
mentioned  in  the  Work. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  91 

Carey,  Matthew. 

Miscellanies.     Philadelphia,  1786. 
Dennie,  Joseph. 

The  Lay  Preacher.     Collected  and  arranged  by  John  E.  Hall, 

Philadelphia,  1817. 
^  Dickinson,  John. 

The  Writings  of.     Edited  by  Paul  Leicester  Ford,  Philadel- 
phia, 1895. 
DucHE,  Revd.  Jacob. 

Observations  on  a  Variety  of  Subjects,  Literary,  Moral  and 

ReHgious.     Philadelphia,  1774. 
Franklin,  Benjamin. 

The  Complete  Works  of.     Compiled  and  Edited  by  John 

Bigelow.     New  York  and  London,  1887.     10  Vols. 
Freneau,  Philip. 

The  Miscellaneous  Works  of.     Philadelphia,  1788. 
Hamilton,  Alexander. 

Contributions  to  the  ''Federalist.''     1787-1788. 
HoPKiNSON,  Francis. 

The    Miscellaneous    Essays    and    Occasional   Writings    of. 

Philadelphia,  1792. 
Humphrey,  Heman. 

Great  Britain,  France  and  Belgium:  A  Short  Tour  in  1835. 

New  York,  1838. 
Jay,  John. 

Contributions  to  the  ''FederaUst."     1787-1788. 
Leonard,  Daniel. 

A  Series  of  Essays  over  the  Signature  ''Massachusettensis." 
Madison,  James. 

Contributions  to  the  ''Federalist."     1787-1788. 
Mather,  Cotton. 

Essays  to  do  Good.     Boston,  1710. 
Paine,  Thomas. 

The  Works  of.     Philadelphia,  1797.     2  Vols. 
Prentiss,  Charles. 

Child   of   Pallas:   Devoted   mostly   to   the   Belles-Lettres. 

Baltimore,  1800. 
Prompter,  The  or 

A  Commentary  on  Common  Sayings  and  Subjects.     Boston, 

1792. 
PucKLE,  James. 

A  Gray  Cap  for  a  Green  Head.     Philadelphia,  1798. 
Rush,  Benjamin,  M.D. 

Essays,  Literary,  Moral  and  Philosophical.     Philadelphia, 

1798. 
Seabury,  Samuel. 

A  Series  of  Essays  over  signature  of  "Westchester  Farmer." 
Sherburne,  Henry,  A.B. 

The  Oriental  Philanthropist,  or  True  Republican.     Ports- 
mouth, 1800. 


92  Graduate  School  Publications. 

Trumbull,  John. 

''The    Meddler."     Boston    Chronicle,     1769-1770.     ''The 

Correspondent."     The  Connecticut  Journal  and  New  Haven 

Post  Boy.     1770  and  1773-1774. 
Ward,  Nathaniel. 

The  Simple  Cobbler  of  Agawam.     London,  1645. 
Webster,  Noah,  Junr. 

A  Collection  of  Essays  and   Fugitive   Writings.     Boston, 

1790. 
WiTHERSPOON,  John,  D.D. 

The  Select  Works  of.     London,  1804. 
WooLMAN,  John. 

The  Works  of.     In  two  Parts.     2nd  Edition.     Philadelphia, 

1774. 

SECTION   IV. 
(B)  MAJOR  MODERN   ESSAYISTS. 

Abbott,  Charles  Conrad. 

Days  Out  of  Doors.     New  York,  1889. 

Freedom  of  the  Fields.     Philadelphia,  1898. 

Upland  and  Meadow.     New  York,  1886. 

Notes  of  the  Night.     New  York,  1896. 

Bird-land  Echoes.     Philadelphia,  1896. 

The  Rambles  of  an  Idler.     Philadelphia,  1906. 

Recent  Rambles.     Philadelphia,  1892. 

Travels  in  the  Tree  Tops.     Philadelphia,  1904. 

In  Nature's  Realm.     Trenton,  N.  J.,  1900. 

Waste-Land  Wanderings.     New  York,  1887. 

Outings  at  Odd  Times.     New  York,  1897. 

A  Naturalist's  Rambles  about  Home.     New  York,  1894. 
Alcott,  a.  Bronson. 

Concord  Days.     Boston,  1872. 

Table  Talk.     Boston,  1877. 

Tablets.     Boston,  1868. 
Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey. 

Ponkapog  Papers.     Boston,  1903. 
Bryant,  William  Cullen. 

Complete  Prose  Works  of.     2  Vols.     New  York,  1894. 
Burroughs,  John. 

Birds  and  Bees.     New  York,  1887. 

Birds  and  Poets.     Boston,  1885. 

Wake-Robin.     Boston,  1895. 

Far  and  Near.     New  York,  1904. 

Indoor  Studies.     New  York,  1889. 

Pepacton.     New  York,  1881. 

Riverby.     New  York,  1894. 

Signs  and  Seasons.     New  York,  1886. 

Ways  of  Nature.     New  York,  1905. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  93 

Fresh  Fields.     New  York,  1885. 

Locusts  and  Wild  Honey.     Boston,  1879. 

Winter  Sunshine.     Boston,  1876. 

A  Year  in  the  Fields.     New  York,  1896. 

Notes  on  Walt  Whitman  as  Poet  and  Person.     New  York, 
1867. 

The  Everyday  Philosopher  in  Town  and  Country.     Boston, 
1869. 
Channing,  William  Ellery. 

The  Works  of.     Boston,  1848. 
Crothers,  Samuel  McChord. 

The  Pardoner's  Wallet.     Boston,  1905. 

By  the  Christmas  Fire.     Boston,  1908. 

The  Gentle  Reader.     Boston,  1904. 

Among  Friends.     Boston,  1910. 
Curtis,  George  William. 

Ars  Recti  Vivendi.     New  York,  1898. 

From  the  Easy  Chair.     3  Vols.     New  York,  1892. 

Literary  and  Social  Essays.     New  York,  1895. 
Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo. 

Essays.     Boston,  1865. 

Miscellanies.     Boston,  1892. 

Society  and  Solitude.     Boston,  1898. 

Representative  Men.     Boston,  1850. 

Letters  and  Social  Aims.     Boston,  1876. 

Essays  and  English  Traits.     New  York.  1909. 
Hale,  Edward  Everett. 

Poems  and  Fancies.     Boston,  1901. 
Hawthorne,  Nathaniel. 

The  Complete  Works  of.     12  Vols.     Boston,  1883. 
Hearn,  Lafcadio. 

A  Japanese  Miscellany.     Boston,  1901. 

Exotics  and  Retrospectives.     Boston,  1898. 

Strange  Leaves  from  Strange  Literature.     Boston,  1884. 

Out  of  the  East.     Boston,  1895. 

Shadowings.     Boston,  1900. 
HiGGiNSON,  Thomas  Wentworth. 

Book  and  Heart.   Essays  on  Literature  and  Life.   New  York , 

1897. 

Concerning  All  of  Us.     New  York,  1892. 

Atlantic  Essays.     Boston,  1871. 

Carlyle's  Laugh  and  Other  Surprises.     Boston,  1909. 

Out-door  Papers.     Boston,  1863. 

Part  of  a  Man's  Life.     Boston,  1905. 

Things  Worth  While.     New  York,  1908. 

Women  and  Men.     New  York,  1888. 

Cheerful  Yesterdays.     Boston,  1898. 

Contemporaries.     Boston,  1899. 

Woman  and  Her  Wishes:  an  Essay.     New  York,  1853. 


94  Graduate  School  Publications. 

Women  and  the  Alphabet.     Boston,  1900. 

The  Procession  of  the  Flowers  and  Kindred  Papers.     New 

York,  1897. 
Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell. 

The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table.     New  York,  1893. 

The  Poet  at  the  Breakfast  Table.     New  York,  1890. 

The  Professor  at  the  Breakfast  Table.     New  York,  1890. 

Over  the  Tea  Cups.     New  York,  1891. 

Pages  from  an  Old  Volume  of  Life.     Boston,  1891. 
HowELLS,  William  Dean. 

Criticism  and  Fiction.     New  York,  1891. 

Impressions  and  Experiences.     New  York,  1896. 

Literature  and  Life.     New  York,  1902. 

Suburban  Sketches.     New  York,  1871. 

Modern  Italian  Poets.     New  York,  1887. 

My  Literary  Passions.     New  York,  1895. 

Heroines  of  Fiction.     New  York,  1901. 

Literary  Friends  and  Acquaintances.     New  York,  1900. 

Venetian  Life.     Boston,  1878. 

My  Mark  Twain.     New  York,  1910. 
Irving,  Washington. 

Salmagundi.     London,  1839. 

The  Crayon  Miscellany.     New  York,  1895. 

Reviews  and  Miscellanies.     New  York,  1897. 

The  Sketch  Book.     New  York,  1901. 

Spanish  Papers.     New  York,  1866. 
James,  Henry,  Jr. 

Partial  Portraits.     New  York,  1888. 

Picture  and  Text.     New  York,  1893. 

Lectures  and  Miscellanies.     New  York,  1852. 

Essays  in  London  and  Elsewhere.     New  York,  1893. 

Views  and  Reviews.     Boston,  1908. 
Jerome,  Jerome  K. 

The  Idle  Thoughts  of  an  Idle  Fellow.     New  York,  1898. 

Second  Thoughts  of  an  Idle  Fellow.     New  York,  1898. 
Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth. 

The  Prose  Works  of.     Boston,  1881. 
Lowell,  James  Russell. 

Fire  Side  Travels.     Boston,  1886. 

My  Study  Windows.     Boston,  1889. 

Among  My  Books.     Boston,  1897. 

The  Old  English  Dramatists.     Boston,  1892. 

Political  Essays.     Boston,  1888. 
Mabie,  Hamilton  W. 

A  Child  of  Nature.     New  York,  1901. 

Essays  on  Literary  Interpretation.     New  York,  1892. 

Books  and  Culture.     New  York,  1896. 

Essays  on  Work  and  Culture.     New  York,  1898. 

In  Arcady.     New  York,  1903. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  95 

My  Study  Fire.     New  York,  1899. 

Nature  and  Culture.     New  York,  1896. 

In  the  Forest  of  Arden.     New  York,  1898. 

Introductions  to  Notable  Poems.     New  York,  1909. 

Backgrounds  of  Literature.     New  York,  1903. 

Parables  of  Life.     New  York,  1904. 

Works  and  Days.     New  York,  1902. 

Under  the  Trees.     New  York,  1902. 
Mitchell,  Donald  Grant. 

Bound  Together.     New  York,  1884. 

Dream  Life.     New  York,  1884. 

Reveries  of  a  Bachelor.     New  York,  1900. 

The  Lorgnette.     New  York,  1850. 
More,  Paul  Elmer. 

The  Great  Refusal.     Boston,  1894. 

Shelburne  Essays.     Series  1-7.     New  York,  1904-1910. 
OssoLi,  Margaret  Fuller. 

Life  Without  and  Life  Within.     Boston,  1860. 

Papers  on  Literature  and  Art.     New  York,  1846. 

At  Home  and  Abroad.     New  York,  1869. 

Art,  Literature  and  the  Drama.     New  York,  1869. 
PoE,  Edgar  Allan. 

Complete  Works  of.     10  Vols.     New  York,  1902. 
Repplier,  Agnes. 

Essays  in  Miniature.     New  York,  1892. 

Varia.     Boston,  1897. 

Compromises.     Boston,  1904. 

The  Fireside  Sphinx.     Boston,  1901. 

A  Happy  Half  Century.     Boston,  1908. 

In  Our  Convent  Days.     Boston,  1905. 

Point  of  View.     Boston,  1891. 
Taylor,  Bayard. 

The  Echo  Club,  Boston,  1876. 

Critical  Essays  and  Literary  Notes.     New  York,  1880. 

At  Home  and  Abroad.     New  York,  1862. 
Thoreau,  David  Henry. 

Walden.     New  York,  1897. 

A  Week  on  the  Concord  and  Merrimack  Rivers.     New  York^ 

1900. 

Cape  Cod.     Boston,  1890. 
Van  Dyke,  Henry. 

Essays  in  Application.     New  York,  1905. 

Days  off.     New  York,  1897. 

Little  Rivers.     New  York,  1895. 

Fisherman's  Luck.     New  York,  1894. 

The  Spirit  of  America.     New  York,  1910. 
Warner,  Charles  Dudley. 

As  We  Go.     New  York,  1894. 

Back-log  Studies.     Boston,  1894. 


96  Graduate  School  Publications. 

A  Hunting  of  the  Deer  and  Other  Essays.     Boston,  1878. 

My  Summer  in  a  Garden.     Boston,  1871. 

Saunterings.     Boston,  1872. 

Fashions  in  Literature.     New  York,  1902. 

The  Relation  of  Literature  to  Life.     New  York,  1897. 
Whipple,  Edwin  P. 

Character  and  Characteristic  Men.     Boston,   1866. 

Essays  and  Reviews.     Boston,  1850. 

Literature  and  Life.     Boston,  1871. 

Success  and  its  Conditions.     Boston,  1871. 

Recollections  of  Eminent  Men.     Boston,  1887. 

Outlooks  on  Society,  Literature  and  Politics.     Boston,  1887. 
Whitman,  Walt. 

Complete  Prose  Works  of.     Philadelphia,  1907. 

SECTION  IV. 

(C)  A  SUPPLEMENTARY  LIST  OF  MINOR  AMERICAN 

ESSAYISTS. 
Though  no  list  of  Minor  American  Essayists  could  be  called 
exhaustive,  this  list,  together  with  the  previous  sections,  may 
claim  to  be  the  first  complete  Bibliography  of  the  American  Es- 
say that  has  been  compiled. 

Abiel,  Mrs.  L.  G. 

Gems  by  the  Wayside.     New  York,  1871. 
Adams,  Charles  F.,  Jr. 

Chapters  of  Erie.     Boston,  1871. 
Adams,  Henry. 

Historical  Essays.     New  York,  1891. 
Adams,  John  Coleman. 

An  Honorable  Youth.     Boston,  1906. 

Nature  Studies  in  Berkshire.     New  York,  1899. 
Adams,  John  S. 

Town  and  Country.     Boston,  1855. 
Adams,  W.  I.  Lincoln. 

Woodland  and  Meadow.     New  York,  1901. 
Ailenroe,  Cornelia. 

Musings  of  a  Middle-Aged  Woman.     Philadelphia,  1872. 
Albee,  John. 

Prose  Idyls.     Cambridge,  1892. 

Literary  Art.     A  Conversation  Between  a  Painter,  a  Poet 

and  a  Philosopher.     New  York,  1891. 
Alger,  William  Rounseville. 

(The  Gems  of  Solitude.)     The  Solitudes  of  Nature  and  of 

Man.     Boston,  1867. 

The  School  of  Life.     Boston,  1881. 
Allen,  Martha. 

Day  Dreams.     Philadelphia,  1852. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  97 

Altgeld,  John  Peter. 

The  Cost  of  Something  for  Nothing.     Chicago,  1904. 
Ambrose,  D.  Leib. 

Under  the  Gaslight.     Springfield,  111.,  1899. 
Andrews,  Professor  E.  A. 

Leisure  Hours.     Boston,  1844, 
Appleton,  Thomas  J. 

Chequer-Work.     Boston,  1879. 

Windfalls.     Boston,  1878. 

A  Sheaf  of  Paper.     Boston,  1875. 
Arnold,  Howard  Payson. 

Historic  Side  Lights.     New  York,  1899. 
Atkinson,  William. 

The  World  Without  a  Notion.     Chicago,  1892. 
Babbitt,  Irving. 

Literature  and  the  American  College.     Boston,  1908. 

The  New  Laocoon.     Boston,  1910. 
Bain,  John,  Jr. 

Tobacco  Leaves.     Boston,  1903. 

Cigarettes  in  Fact  and  Fancy.     Boston,  1906. 
Baker,  James  H.,  M.A.,  LL.D. 

American  Problems.     New  York  and  London,  1907. 
Baker,  James  L. 

Men  and  Things.     Boston,  1898. 
Ballard,  Addison,  D.D. 

Arrows.     New  York  and  Chicago,  1890. 
Ballou,  Maturin  Murray. 

Genius  in  Sunshine  and  Shadow.     Boston,  1897. 
Balmanno,  Mrs.  Mary. 

Pen  and  Pencil.     New  York,  1858. 
Bancroft,  Hubert  Howe. 

Essays  and  Miscellany.     San  Francisco,  1890. 
Barnes,  Albert. 

Miscellaneous  Essays  and  Reviews.     New  York,  1855. 
Barns,  Charles  Edward. 

Solitarius  to  His  Daemons.     New  York,  1899. 
Barron,  Alfred. 

Footnotes  (or  Walking  as  a  Fine  Art).     Wallingford,  Conn., 

1875. 
Bartlett,  W.  C. 

A  Breeze  from  the  Woods.     Author's  private  edition. 
Bartol,  C.  a. 

Principles  and  Portraits.     Boston,  1880. 

Radical  Problems.     Boston,  1872. 
Bates,  Charles  Austin. 

Cheer  Up  and  Eight  Other  Things.    New  York,  1904.    New 

York,  1905. 

Cheer  Up  and  Seven  Other  Things.     Reprinted  from  Judi- 
cious Advertising.     New  York,  1904. 


98  Graduate  School  Puhlications. 

Battell,  Joseph. 

Ellen,  or  the  Whisperings  of  an  Old  Pine.     Middlebury,  Vt., 

1901. 
Beardshear,  William  Miller. 

A  Boy  Again  and  Other  Prose  Poems.     Cedar  Rapids,  la., 

1904. 
Beaseley,  F.  W. 

Papers  from  Overlook  House.     Philadelphia,  1866. 
Beecher,  Henry  Ward. 

Lectures  to  Young  Men.     New  York,  1873. 

Eyes  and  Ears.     Boston,  1864. 

Star  Papers.     New  York,  1873. 
Beer,  H.  H. 

The  Hoot  of  the  Owl.     San  Francisco,  1904. 
Beers,  Heniiy  A. 

The  Ways  of  Yale  in  the  Consulship  of  Plancus.     New  York, 

1896. 

Points  at  Issue  and  some  Other  Points.     New  York,  1904. 
Bell,  J.  D. 

The  Great  Slighted  Fortune.     New  York,  1878. 

A  Man.     Philadelphia,  1860. 
Benjamin,  Fannye  Nichols. 

The  Sunny  Side  of  Shadows.     Boston,  1897. 
Benton,  Joel. 

Persons  and  Places.     New  York,  1895. 
Beveridge,  Albert  J. 

Work  and  Habits.     Philadelphia,  1908. 
BiDDLE,  Anthony  J.  Drexel. 

The  Flowers  of  Life.     Philadelphia,  1897. 
BiERCE,  Ambrose. 

The  Shadow  on  the  Dial  and  Other  Essays.     San  Francisco, 

1909. 
Bigelow,  Jacob,  M.D. 

Modern  Inquiries.     Boston,  1870. 
Bird,  Robert  M. 

Peter  Pilgrim,  or  a  Rambler's  Recollections.     Philadelphia,, 

1838. 
Bishop,  Maria  J. 

Sunset  Clouds.     Boston,  1873. 
Blake,  James  Vila. 

Essays.     Chicago,  1887. 
Bolles,  Frank. 

From  Blomidon  to  Smoky  and  Other  Papers.     New  York, 

1894. 
Bonnell,  Henry  H. 

Charlotte  Bronte,  George  Eliot,  Jane  Austin.     Studies  ia 

their  Works.     New  York,  1902. 
Bourne,  Edward  Gaylord. 

Essays  in  Historical  Criticism.     New  York,  1901. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  BO 

Bourne,  G. 

The  Spirit  of  the  Public  Journals.     Baltimore,  1806. 
BouTON,  Emily  S. 

Life's  Gateways.     Boston,  1896. 
BowEN,  Francis,  LL.D. 

Gleanings  from  a  Literary  Life.     New  York,  1880. 
BowKER,  Richard  Rogers. 

The  Arts  of  Life.     Boston  and  New  York,  1900. 

BOYESEN,    HjALMAR   HjORTH. 

Literary  and  Social  Silhouettes.     New  York,  1904. 

Essays  on  Scandinavian  Literature.     New  York,  1895. 
BoYNTON,  Henry  Walcott. 

JournaUsm   and   Literature;   and   Other   Essays.     Boston, 

1904. 
Brewster,  Francis  E. 

The  Philosophy  of  Human  Nature.     Philadelphia,  1851. 
Bridges,  Robert. 

Suppressed  Chapters  and  Other  Bookishness.     New  York, 

1895. 
Brinkley,  Mrs.  Hugh  L. 

A  Woman's  Thoughts  about  Men.     New  York,  1879. 
Brisbane,  Arthur. 

Editorials  from  the  Hearst  Newspapers.     New  York,  1906. 
Bristed,  C.  a. 

Pieces  of  a  Broken  Down  Critic  Picked  up  by  Himself. 

Baden-Baden,  1858-1859. 
Brooks,  Phillips. 

Essays  and  Addresses.     New  York.  1894. 
Brown,  Leonard. 

Our  Own  Columbia  That  is  to  Be.     Des  Moines,  Iowa,  1908. 
Brown,  N. 

Critical  Confessions.     Wausan,  Wis.,  1899. 
Brown,  William  Garrott. 

The  Foe  of  Compromise  and  Other  Essays.     New  York, 

1903. 
Brown,  W.  L. 

Scribblings  and  Sketches,  Diplomatic,  Piscatory  and  Oceanic. 

Philadelphia,  1844. 
Browne,  George  Morgan. 

Essays  and  Addresses.     Privately  printed,  1886. 
Browne,  Irving. 

Iconoclasm  and  Whitewash.     New  York,  1885. 
Bryan,  John. 

Fables  and  Essays.     New  York,  1895. 
BucKHAM,  James. 

Where  Town   and   Country   Meet.     Cincinnati  and  New 

York,  1903. 
BuELL,  Guy  Alby. 

Kodaks.     Stockton,  CaL,  1900. 


100  Graduate  School  Publications. 

BuGG,  Lelia  Hardin. 

The  People  of  Our  Parish.     Boston,  1900. 

BuNCE,  Oliver  Bell. 

Bachelor  Bluff!     His  Opinions,  Sentiments  and    Disputa- 
tions.    New  York,  1881. 

BUNNER,    H.    C. 

Jersey    Street    and   Jersey   Lane.     Urban   and   Suburban 

Sketches.     New  York,  1896. 
BuRDiCK,  Lewis  Dayton. 

Oriental  Studies.     Oxford,  New  York,  1905. 
Burgess,  Gelett. 

The  Romance  of  the  Common  Place.     San  Francisco,  1902. 

Are  You  a  Bromide,  or  the  Sulphitic  Theory.     New  York, 

1906. 
BuRNHAM,  Benjamin  F. 

Elsmere  Elsewhere  or  Shifts  and  Make-Shifts.    Boston,  1889. 
Burr,  Revd.  E.  C. 

Mountain  Walks  of  a  Recluse.     New  York,  1903. 
BuRRiTT,  Elihu. 

Chips  from  Many  Blocks.     Toronto,  1878. 

Ten-Minute  Talks  on  All  Sorts  of  Topics.     Boston,  1874. 

Thoughts  and  Things  at  Home  and  Abroad.     Boston,  1854. 

Voice  from  the  Forge.     London,  1848. 
BuRROWEs,  Peter  E. 

Revolutionary  Essays  in  Socialist  Faith  and  Fancy.     New 

York,  1903. 
Burton,  Charles  Pierce. 

The  Bashful  Man  and  Others.     Chicago,  1902. 
Burton,  Frank  S. 

Green  Fields  and  Whispering  Woods.     Detroit,  1886. 
BusHNELL,  Horace. 

Building  Eras  in  Religion.     New  York,  1881. 

Moral  Uses  of  Dark  Things.     New  York,  1881. 

Work  and  Play.     New  York,  1881. 
Butler,  Noble. 

Butler's  Miscellanies.     Louisville,  Ky.,  1880. 

Cabell,  Isa  Carrington. 

The  Thoughtless  Thoughts  of  Causibel.     New  York,  1903. 
Call,  Annie  Payson. 

A  Man  of  the  World.     Boston,  1905. 

The  Freedom  of  Life.     Boston,  1905. 
Calvert,  George  Henry. 

Brief  Essays  and  Brevities.     Boston,  1874. 

Essays  Aesthetical.     Boston,  1875. 

The  Gentleman.     Boston,  1863. 
Carman,  Bliss. 

The  Knowledge  of  Nature.     Boston,  1904. 

The  Friendship  of  Art.     Boston,  1904. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature:  101 

Carnegie,  Andrew. 

The  Gospel  of  Wealth  and  Other  Timely  Essays.     New 

York,  1900. 
Carson,  Joseph  Dickson. 

In  Nature's  Temple.     Philadelphia,  1910. 
Carstens,  Henry  W. 

A  Trifolicum.     Boston  and  Cambridge,  1855. 
Carter,  Rhoda  T. 

The  Journey  of  Life.     Concord,  N.  H.,  1905. 
Caton,  John  Dean,  LL.D. 

Miscellanies.     Boston,  1880. 
Cawein,  Madison. 

Nature  Notes  and  Impressions  in  Prose  and  Verse.     New 

York,  1906. 
Chalmers,  Jeanette. 

When  One  is  With  Nature.     New  York,  1897. 
Chamberlin,  Joseph  Edgar. 

The  Listener  in  the  Town.     Boston,  1896. 
Champney,  Lizzie  W. 

All  Around  a  Palette.     Boston,  1878. 
Chandler,  Elizabeth  Margaret. 

Essays.     Philanthropic  and  Moral.     Philadelphia,  1836. 
Chandler,  Sophia. 

Chiefly  from  Castles  in  Spain.     New  York,  1905. 
Chaney,  George  Leonard. 

Everyday  Life  and  Everyday  Morals.     Boston,  1885. 
Channing,  Elizabeth  P. 

Kindling  Thoughts.     Boston,  1892. 
Chapin,  Henry  Dwight,  M.D. 

Vital  Questions.     New  York,  1905. 
Chapman,  John  Jay. 

Causes  and  Consequences.     New  York,  1909. 

Practical  Agitation.     New  York,  1909. 

Emerson  and  Other  Essays.     New  York,  1898. 
Chase,  Wilfred  Earl. 

Jonathan  Upglade.     Madison,  Wis.,  1906. 
Chatard,  Rt.  Revd.  Francis  Silas,  D.D. 

Occasional  Essays.     New  York,  1894. 
Child,  L.  Maria. 

Autumnal  Leaves.     New  York,  1857. 

Looking  Toward  Sunset.     Boston,  1865. 
Child,  Mrs. 

The  Coronal.     Boston,  1882. 
Church,  D.  W. 

The  Enigma  of  Life.     Greenfield,  Iowa,  1892. 
Church,  R.  W. 

Miscellaneous  Essays.     New  York,  1888. 


102-  Graduate  School  Publications. 

Clark,  Revd.  F.  E. 

Danger  Signals.     Boston,  1885. 

The  Great  Secret.     Boston  and  Chicago,  1897. 

Looking  Out  on  Life.     Boston,  1892. 

Mossback  Correspondence.     Boston,  1889. 
Clark,  Kate  Upson. 

Art  and  Citizenship.     New  York,  1907. 

Move  Upward.     New  York,  1902. 
Clark,  Lewis  Gaylord. 

Knick-Knacks.     New  York,  1852. 
Clark,  Susie  C. 

The  Melody  of  Life.     New  York,  1902. 
Clark,  William  H. 

The  Soldier's  Offering.     Boston,  1875. 
Clarke,  H.  A.,  Mus.  Doc. 

The  ''Scratch  Club."     Philadelphia,  1889. 
Clarke,  Jame^  Freeman. 

Nineteenth  Century  Questions.     Boston,  1897. 

Self  Culture.     Boston,  1908. 
Clemens,  S.  L.  (Mark  Twain.) 

How  to  Tell  a  Story  and  Other  Essays.     New  York,  1897. 
Clemens,  William  M. 

Sixty   and   Six.     Chips   from   Literary   Workshops.     New 

Amsterdam,  New  York,  1895. 
Clemmer,  Mary.  (Ames.) 

Outlines  of  Men,  Women  and  Things.     New  York,  1873. 
Cleveland,  Cecilia. 

The  Story  of  a  Summer.     New  York,  1874. 
Cleveland,  H.  W.  S. 

Social  Life  and  Literature.     Boston,  1888. 
Cleveland,  Rose  Elizabeth. 

George  Eliot's  Poetry  and  Other  Studies.     New  York,  1885. 
Clodpole,  Christopher,  Esq.  Farmer. 

The  Clodpole  Papers.     Baltimore,  1844. 
Clouston,  W.  a. 

The  Book  of  Noodles.     New  York,  1888. 
Cobb,  Joseph  B. 

Leisure  Labors,  or  Miscellanies,  Historical,  Literary  and 

Political.     New  York,  1858. 
Colbert,  Elias,  M.A. 

Scorias.     Chicago,  1883. 
Colby,  Frank  Moore. 

Imaginary  Obligations.     New  York,  1904. 
Cole,  Mary  Eliza  Gully. 

Essays.     New  York,  1909. 
Cole,  H.  G. 

Confessions  of  an  American  Opium  Eater.     Boston,  1895. 
Cole,  James  Reid. 

Miscellany.     Dallas,  Tex.,  1897. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  103 

Coles,  Richard  T. 

Events  and  Reflections.     Boston,  1908. 
Collins,  John  A. 

Homespun  Odds  and  Ends.     Denver,  Col.,  1902. 
Collins,  Mabel. 

Through  the  Gates  of  Gold.     Boston,  1887. 
Collins,  Stephen,  M.D. 

Miscellanies.     Philadelphia,  1842. 
CoLTON,  Revd.  a.  M. 

The  Old  Meeting  House  and  Vacation  Papers.     New  York, 

1890. 

COMEGYS,    B.    B. 

A  Tour  Around  My  Library  and  Some  Other  Papers.     Phila- 
delphia, 1894. 

Turn  Over  a  New  Leaf.     New  York  and  Chicago,  1892. 
CoNGDON,  Charles  T. 

Tribune  Essays.     New  York,  1869. 

CONKLIN,    AbRAM. 

What  are  You  Doing  Here?     Boston,  1898. 
Conner,  Charles  Chambers. 

From  Nature  to  Man.     Springfield,  Mass.,  1910. 
CooKE,  George  Willis. 

Poets  and  Problems.     Boston,  1886. 
Conway,  Moncure  D.,  M.A. 

Addresses  and  Reprints,  1850  to  1907.     Boston  and  New 

York,  1909. 

Farewell  Discourses.     London,  1884. 

The  Wandering  Jew.     New  York,  1881. 
Cook,  Albert  S.,  Ph.D.,  L.H.D. 

The  Artistic  Ordering  of  Life.     New  York,  1899. 
Cook,  Jonas. 

Uncle  Jonas'  Talks.     Harper,  Kansas,  1891. 
Cooke,  Arthur  Billis. 

Essays  on  Work  and  Life.     Nashville,  Tenn.,  1904. 

COOLIDGE,    KaTHERINB. 

Selections.     Privately  printed.     Boston,  1901. 
Cope,  Henry  F. 

The  Friendly  Life.     New  York  and  Chicago,  1909. 

Levels  of  Living.     New  York,  1908. 
CoRLiES,  Margaret  L. 

Shreds.     Philadelphia,  1905. 
Corson,  Hiram. 

The  Voice  and  Spiritual  Education.     New  York,  1896. 
CoE,  Mrs.  M. 

Home  Thoughts.     New  York,  1901. 
Cox,  William. 

Crayon  Sketches  by  an  Amateur.     (Edited  by  T.  S.  Fay.) 

New  York.  1833. 


104  Graduate  School  Publications, 

CozzENS,  Frederick  S. 

The  Sayings  of  Dr.  Bushwhacker  and  Other  Learned  Men. 

New  York,  1867. 
Crane,  Mrs.  B.  H. 

Life  Letters  and  Wayside  Gleanings  for  the  Folks  at  Home. 

Boston,  1880. 
Crofton,  F.  B. 

The  Bewildered  Jurists  and  Other  Nonsense.     New  York, 

1875. 
Crowley,  Mrs.  Richard. 

Echoes    from    Niagara: — Historical,     Political,     Personal. 

Buffalo,  1890. 
CuNiNGHAM,  John. 

The  Dream-God.     New  York,  1873. 
Curry,  Daniel. 

Platform  Papers.     Cincinnati,  1880. 
Curtis,  William  E. 

Children  of  the  Sun.     Chicago,  1883. 

Dabney,  Frances  S. 

Sandades.     Privately  printed.     1903. 
Dall,  Caroline  W.  Healey. 

Essays  and  Sketches.     Boston,  1849. 

Sardello.     A  History  and  a  Poem.     Boston,  1886. 
Dana,  Richard  H. 

The  Idle  Man.     2  Vols.     New  York,  1821-1822. 
Davidson,  John. 

The  Man  Forbid  and  Other  Essays.     Boston,  1910. 
Davis,  Rebecca  Harding. 

Bits  of  Gossip.     New  York,  1904. 
Davis,  Miss  Rebecca  I. 

Gleanings  from  Merrimac  Valley.     Portland,  Me.,  1881. 
Davis,  Stanton  Kirkham. 

As  Nature  Whispers.     New  York,  1902. 
Dawson,  W.  J. 

The  Forgotten  Secret.     New  York  and  Chicago.  1906. 
Deaver,  Margaret  T. 

Moody  Days.     Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  1900. 
DeKroft,  S.  H. 

A  Place  in  My  Memory.     New  York,  1850. 
Deland,  Margaret. 

The  Common  Way.     New  York  and  London,  1904. 
Del  Mar,  Eugene. 

Living  Ideals.     New  York,  1907. 
Denison,  Mary  A. 

What  Not.     Philadelphia,  1855. 
Desmond,  Humphrey  J. 

Outlooks  and  Insights.     New  York  and  Chicago,  1899. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  105 

Dewey,  Thomas  Emmet. 

Poetry  and  Song  and  Some  Other  Studies  in  Literature. 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,  1907. 
DiMEN,  Revd.  J.  Lewis. 

Orations  and  Essays.     Boston,  1882. 
Dodge,  Mary  Mapes. 

Theophilus  and  Others.     New  York,  1876. 

DOHERTY,    J.    M. 

Paddy  Pungent,  or  a  RambUng  Irishman.     San  Francisco, 
.       1867. 
Dow,  Lorenzo. 

Biography  and  Miscellany.     Norwich,  Conn.,  1834. 
DowLiNG,  Richard. 

Ignorant  Essays.     New  York,  1888. 
Downs,  Robert  P.,  LL.D. 

Life's  Eventide.     New  York,  1907. 
Downs,  W.  H. 

Arcadian  Days.     Boston,  1891. 
Dresser,  Horatio  W. 

Living  by  the  Spirit.     New  York,  1900. 

Man  and  the  Divine  Order.     New  York,  1903. 

Voices  of  Hope  and  Other  Messages  from  the  Hills.     Boston, 

1898. 
DuANE,  William  Ligan. 

A  Collection  of  Tales  and  Essays.     Philadelphia,  1887. 
Du  Bois,  James  T. 

Fun  and  Pathos  of  One  Life.     New  York,  1908. 
DuERiNG,  Julia. 

Gentlefolks  and  Others.     Philadelphia,  1876. 

Philosophers  and  Fools.     Philadelphia,  1874. 

Mental  Life  and  Culture.     Philadelphia,  1893. 
DuNKLEY,  Maud. 

Nature's  Allegories  and  Poems.     New  York,  1903. 
Dunn,  Martha  Baker. 

Cicero  in  Maine  and  Other  Essays.     Boston,  1905. 
DuNPHiE,  Charles  J. 

The  Splendid  Advantages  of  Being  a  Woman  and  Other  Er- 
ratic Essays.     New  York,  1878. 

Edwards,  Charles. 

Feathers  from  My  Own  Wings.     New  York,  1832. 
Edwards,  Henry. 

A  Mingled  Yarn.     New  York,  1883. 
Egan,  M.  F. 

Studies  in  Literature.     St.  Louis,  1899. 
Elbert,  W.  B. 

On  Colorado's  Fair  Mesas.     Pueblo,  Col.,  1897. 
Elder,  William. 

Periscopics.     New  York,  1854. 


106  Graduate  School  Publications. 

Elder,  Paul. 

Mosaic  Essays.     San  Francisco  and  New  York,  1906. 
Eliot,  Charles  W.,  LL.D. 

American  Contributions  to  Civilization  and  Other  Essays. 

New  York,  1897. 

The  Durable  Satisfactions  of  Life.     New  York,  1910. 

Four  American  Leaders.     Boston,  1906. 

Great  Riches.     New  York,  1906. 

The  Happy  Life.     New  York,  1896 .  . 
Ellis,  Summer. 

At  Our  Best.     Boston,  1873. 
Ellsworth,  Lama  Smith. 

The  Wayside  of  Life.     Privately  printed.  1907. 
Ellwanger,  George  H. 

IdylUsts  of  the  Countryside.     New  York,  1896. 

The  Story  of  My  House.     New  York,  1891. 
El  well,  Edward  Henry. 

Fraternity  Papers.     Portland,  Me.,  1886. 
Emerson,  Ellen  Russell. 

Nature  and  Human  Nature.     New  York,  1902. 
Everett,  Alexander  H. 

Critical  and  Miscellaneous  Essays.     Boston,  1845. 
Everett,  Charles  Carroll. 

Essays  Theological  and  Literary.     Boston,  1901. 

Immortality  and  Other  Essays.     Boston,  1902. 

Poetry,  Comedy  and  Duty.     Boston,  1888. 
Everett,  David. 

Common  Sense  in  Dishabille,   or  the   Farmer's   Monitor. 

Worcester,  Mass.,  1799. 
EvERHART,  James  B. 

Miscellanies.     West  Chester,  Pa.,  1882. 
Everett,  Edward. 

The  Mount  Vernon  Papers.     New  York,  1860. 

Fairbanks,  Charles  B. 

Aguecheek.     Boston,  1859. 
Fairless,  Michael. 

The  Roadmender.     New  York.  1902. 

The  Grey  Brethren  and  Other  Fragments  in  Prose  and  Verse. 

New  York,  1905. 
Farley,  Harriet. 

Shells  from  the  Strand  of  the  Sea  of  Genius.     Boston,  1847. 
Farrar,  Charles  F. 

Equihbrium,  or  Meetings  of  the  Sphinx  Club.     Providence, 

R.  I.,  1906. 
Farrington,  Frank. 

The  Vagabond  Book.     Deposit,  N.  Y.,  1906. 
Fawcett,  Edgar. 

Agnosticism  and  Other  Essays.     New  York,  1889. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  107 

Fay,  Theodore  S. 

Dreams  and  Reveries  of  a  Quiet  Man.     New  York,  1832. 
Fellers,  John  E. 

Crossing  Familiar  Paths.     Chicago,  1905. 
Field,  Eugene. 

A  Little  Book  of  Profitable  Tales.     New  York,  1895. 

The  Love  Affairs  of  a  Bibliomaniac.     New  York,  1896. 

Sharps  and  Flats.     New  York,  1900. 
Field,  Mrs.  Henry  M. 

Home  Sketches  in  France  and  Other  Papers.     New  York, 

1875. 
Field,  Kate. 

Hap-Hazard.     Boston,  1873. 
Fields,  Mrs.  James  T. 

A  Shelf  of  Old  Books.     New  York,  1894. 
Fields,  James  T. 

Underbrush.     Boston,  1877. 
FiNCK,  Bert. 

Musings  and  Pastelles.     Louisville,  Ky.,  1904. 
FisKE,  John  K. 

A  Century  of  Science  and  Other  Essays.     Boston  and  New 

York,  1899. 

Darwinism  and  Other  Essays.     New  York  and  London, 

1879. 

Excursions  of  an  Evolutionist.     Boston,  1884. 

The  Unseen  World  and  Other  Essays.     Boston,  1876. 

Essays,  Historical  and  Literary: 

Vol.  I.     Scenes  and  Characters  in  American  History. 

Vol  II.     In  Favorite  Fields.     New  York,  1902. 
FisKE,  Amos  K. 

Midnight  Talks  at  the  Club.     New  York,  1890. 
FiSKE,  Mary  H. 

The  Giddy  Gusher  Papers.     New  York,  1889. 
Fitzgerald,  Joseph,  A.M. 

Caseine;  Being  Rural  Meditations.     Cincinnati,  1869. 

FiTZ WILLIAM,    W. 

The  Quoddy  Hermit,  or  Conversations  at  Fairfield  on  Re- 
ligion and  Superstition.     Boston,  1841. 
Flagg,  Wilson. 

Halcyon  Days.     Boston,  1881. 
Flower,  B.  O. 

Persons,  Places  and  Ideas : — Miscellaneous  Essays.     Boston, 
Ford,  Mary  Hanford. 

The  Holy  Grail.     Chicago,  1897. 
Forrest,  Albertina  Allen. 

Essays  on  Philosophy  and  Life.     Indianapolis,  1904. 
Foster,  (Jones)  Ardennes. 

Day-dreams.     New  York,  1891. 


108  Graduate  School  Puhlications. 

Foster,  Harriet  W. 

Reflections.     New  York,  1895. 
Fowler,  George. 

A  Flight  to  the  Moon.     Baltimore,  1813. 
Fowler,  William  Chauncey. 

Essays:  Historical,  Literary,  Educational.     Hartford,  1876. 
Francke,  Kuno. 

German  Ideals  of  Today  and  Other  Essays  on  German 

Culture.     Boston  and  New  York,  1907. 

Glimpses  of  Modern  German  Culture.     New  York,  1898. 
Franklin,  Fabian. 

People  and  Problems.     New  York,  1908. 
Freeman,  James  E. 

Gatherings  from  an  Artist's  Portfolio.     New  York,  1877. 
Frye,  Prosser  Hall. 

Literary  Reviews  and  Criticisms.  New  York  and  London, 

1908. 
Furman,  G.  M. 

Long  Island  Miscellanies.     New  York,  1847. 

Gage,  William  Leonard. 

A  Leisurely  Journey.     Boston,  1886. 
Gallatin,  A.  E. 

Whistler's  Art  Dicta  and  Other  Essays.     Boston,  1903. 
Gardener,  Helen  E. 

Facts  and  Fictions  of  Life.     Chicago,  1893. 
Gardner,  Samuel  Jackson. 

Autumn  Leaves.     New  York,  1865. 
Garland,  Hamlin. 

Crumbling  Idols.     Chicago  and  Cambridge,  1894. 
Garretson,  James  E. 

Odd  Hours  of  a  Physician.     Philadelphia,  1871. 
Garrison,  William  Lloyd. 

Selections  from  the  Writings  and  Speeches  of  R.  F.  Wallcut. 

Boston,  1852. 
Gates,  Lewis  E. 

Studies  and  Appreciations.     New  York,  1900. 
Genung,  John  Franklin. 

Ecclesiastes  and  Omar  Khayyam.     New  York,   1901. 

The   Idylls   and   the   Ages.     A   Valuation   of   Tennyson's 

Idylls  of  the  King.     New  York,  1907. 
GiBBEs,  Emily  Oliver. 

Essays.     New  York,  1894. 
Gibbons,  Mrs.  P.  E. 

Pennsylvania  Dutch  and  Other  Essays.     Philadelphia,  1872. 
Gibson,  William  Hamilton. 

High-Ways  and  By- Ways,  or  Saunterings  in  New  England. 

New  York,  1883. 

Pastoral  Days  or  Memories  of  a  New  England  Year.     New 

York,  1881. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  109 

GiDDiNGs,  J.  Wight. 

From  Here  and  There.     New  York,  1910. 

GiLDERSLEEVE,    BaSIL    LaNNEAU. 

Essays  and  Studies;  Educational  and  Literary.     Baltimore, 

1890. 
Giles,  Henry. 

Lectures  and  Essays.     Boston,  1850. 

Illustrations  of  Genius.     Boston,  1854. 
GiLMAN,  Daniel  Coit. 

The  Launching  of  a  University  and  Other  Papers.  New  York, 

1906. 
GiLMAN,  Samuel,  D.D. 

Contributions  to  Literature.     Boston,  1856. 
Gilmer,  Francis  Walker. 

Sketches,  Essays  and  Translations.     Baltimore,  1828. 
GiRARD,  James  Watson.     (A.  Pelican,  Esq.) 

The  Pelican  Papers.     New  York,  1879. 
Given,  Charles  Stewart. 

A  Fleece  of  Gold.     Cincinnati,  1905. 
Gladden,  Washington. 

The  New  Idolatry,  and  Other  Discussions.     New  York,  1905. 

Plain  Thoughts  on  the  Art  of  Living.     Boston,  1868. 

Where  Does  the  Sky  Begin?     Boston  and  New  York,  1904. 
Glenn,  Samuel  F. 

Criticism: — Its  Use  and  Abuse.     Washington  City,  1839. 

Gravities  and  Gaieties.     Washington,  1839. 
GoADBY,  William  M. 

Story  of  a  Miniature  and  Other  Writings.    New  York,  1892. 
GoDKiN,  Edwin  Lawrence. 

Problems  of  Modern  Democracy.     Political  and  Economic 

Essays.     New  York,  1896. 

Reflections  and  Comments,  1865-1895.     New  York,  1895. 
GooDALE,  Elaine. 

Journal  of  a  Farmer's  Daughter.     New  York,  1881. 
Goodwin,  Thomas. 

Sketches  and  Impressions,  Musical,  Theatrical  and  Social. 

New  York  and  London,  1887. 
Goss,  Charles  Fredric. 

The  Optimist.     Cincinnati,  1897. 
Gould,  Elizabeth  Porter. 

Ann  Gilchrist  and  Walt  Whitman.     Philadelphia,  1900. 
Graham,  Revd.  David. 

The  Pioneer.     Pittsburgh,  1812. 
Grant,  Robert. 

Search-light  Letters.     New  York,  1899. 

The  Reflections  of  a  Married  Man.     New  York,  1892. 
Gray,  E.  Condon. 

On  Making  the  Best  of  Things  and  Other  Essays.     New 

York,  1891. 


110  Graduate  School  Publications. 

Gray,  John  C. 

Essays: — Agricultural  and  Literary.     Boston,  1856. 
Greene,  Aelia. 

Reminiscent  Sketches.     1902. 
Greenwood,  Grace.     (S.  J.  C.  Lippincott.) 

Heads  and  Tails.     New  York,  1875. 

Greenwood  Leaves.     Boston,  1850. 

Records  of  Five  Years.     Boston,  1857. 
Gregory,  Eliot. 

Worldly  Ways  and  Byways.     New  York,  1898. 

The  Ways  of  Men.     New  York,  1900. 
Griffen,  G.  W. 

Studies  in  Literature.     Baltimore,  1870. 
Griffith,  H.  W. 

A  Lift  for  the  Lazy.     New  York,  1849. 
Griggs,  Edward  Howard. 

A  Book  of  Meditations.     New  York,  1902. 
Guild,  Curtis. 

A  Chat  About  Celebrities.     Boston,  1897. 
GuiNEY,  Louise  Imogen. 

Goose-Quill  Papers.     Boston,  1885. 

Patrius.     Boston,  1897. 
Gunnerson,  Almon. 

Wayside  and  Fireside  Rambles.     Boston,  1894. 

Hadley,  James,  LL.D. 

Essays,  Philosophical  and  Critical.     New  York,  1873. 
Hamilton,  Gail.     (M.  A.  Dodge.) 

A  Battle  of  the  Books.     Cambridge,  Mass.,  1870. 

Country  Living  and  Country  Thinking.     Boston,  1862. 

Gala  Days.     Boston,  1863. 

A  New  Atmosphere.     Boston,  1863. 

Nursery  Noonings.     New  York,  1875. 

Sermons  to  the  Clergy.     Boston,  1876. 

Skirmishes  and  Sketches.     Boston,  1863. 

Summer  Rest.     Boston,  1866. 

Stumbling-blocks.     Boston,  1864. 

Twelve  Miles  from  a  Lemon.     New  York,  1874. 

Wool-Gathering.     Boston,  1867. 

X-Rays. 
Hamlen,  G. 

Chats.     Boston,  1885. 
Hapgood,  Norman. 

Literary  Statesmen  and  Others.     Chicago  and  New  York, 

1897. 
Harley,  Fanny  M. 

Sermonettes  from  Mother  Goose  for  Big  Folks.     Chicago, 

1895. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  Ill 

Harris,  Amanda  B. 

Old  School  Days.     Chicago,  1886. 
Harrison,  Samuel  B. 

Front!  or  Ten  Years  with  the  Travelling  Men.     New  York, 

1899. 
Harte,  Walter  Blackburn. 

Meditations  in  Motley.     Boston,  1894. 
Hathaway,  C.  S. 

Bohemia.     New  York,  1891. 
Hawes,  W.  p.     (J.  Cypress,  Jr.) 

Sporting  Scenes  and  Sundry  Sketches.     New  York,  1842. 
Hawkins,  Rush  C. 

Corlears   Hook  in   1820.     The   Wagnerian   Cult   and   Our 

Manners.     New  York,  1904. 
Hawthorne,  Hildegarde. 

Women  and  Other  Women.   Essays  in  Wisdom.   New  York, 

1898. 
Hawthorne,  Julian. 

Confessions  and  Criticisms.     Boston,  1887. 

Hawthorne  Reading.     An  Essay.     Cleveland,  1902. 
Hazard,  Thomas  R. 

Miscellaneous  Letters  and  Essays.     Philadelphia,   1883. 
Headley,  J.  T. 

Miscellanies.     New  York,  1850. 
Henry,  Caleb  Sprague. 

About  Men  and  Things.     Papers  from  My  Study  Table 

Drawer.     New  York,  1873. 
Hepworth,  George  H. 

Brown  Studies  or  Camp  Fires  and  Morals.     New  York,  1895. 

Rocks  and  Shoals.     Boston,  1870. 
HiGGiNSON,  Mary  P.  Thacher. 

Seashore  and  Prairie.     Boston,  1877. 
Hill,  George  Caning.     (Thomas  Lackland.) 

Homespun;  or  Five  and  Twenty  Years  Ago.    New  York, 

1867. 
HiLLis,  Newell  Dwight. 

The  Investment  of  Influence.     New  York  and  Chicago,  1897. 

Right  Living  as  a  Fine  Art.     New  York,  1898. 
Hinckley,  Fredric  A. 

Afterglow.     Boston,  1892. 

The  Deeper  Meaning.     Boston,  1894. 

Home  to  the  Ideal.     Boston,  1896. 
Hodge,  Charles,  D.D. 

Essays  and  Reviews.     New  York,  1857. 
Hodges,  Leigh  Mitchell.  • 

The  Great  Optimist  and  Other  Essays.     New  York,  1903. 

In  the  Beauty  of  the  Lilies.     New  York,  1904. 

The  Worth  of  Service.     New  York,  1904. 


112  Graduate  School  Publications. 

Hoffman,  David.     (Anthony  Gkumbler.) 

Miscellaneous   Thoughts   on   Men,    Manners   and   Things. 

Baltimore,  1837. 

Viator,  or  a  Peep  into  my  Note  Book.     Baltimore,  1839. 
Hoke,  Robert  L.     (''Brutus.") 

Thoughts.     Nashville,  Tenn.,  1902. 
HoLBROOK,  Silas  Pinckney. 

Sketches  by  a  Traveller.     Boston,  1830. 
Holden,  Mrs.  Martha  E.     (Amber.) 

Rosemary  and  Rue.     Chicago  and  New  York,  1896. 

Glints.     Chicago  and  New  York,  1897. 

A  String  of  Amber  Beads.     Chicago,  1894. 
Holland,  E.  G. 

Reviews  and  Essays.     Boston,  1840. 
Holland,  J.  G.     (Timothy  Titcomb.) 

Everyday  Topics.     A  Book  of  Briefs.     New  York,  1876. 

Gold-foil  Hammered  from  Popular  Proverbs.     New  York, 

1859. 

Letters  to  the  Jones's.     New  York,  1872. 

Plain  Talks  on  Familiar  Subjects.     New  York,  1866. 

Titcomb' s  Letters  to  Young  People.     New  York,  1886. 
HOLLEY,   H.   W. 

The  Real  Problem  and  Other  Critiques.     Buffalo,  1891. 

Random  Shots  at  Living  Targets.     New  York,  1889. 
Holmes,  John  C. 

Substance  and  Shadow  or  the  Real  and  Unreal.     New  York, 

1894. 
Hopkins,  Mark,  D.D. 

Miscellaneous  Essays  and  Discussions.     Boston,  1847. 

Strength  and  Beauty.     New  York,  1874. 
Hornby,  Mrs.  E.  B. 

Under  Old  Rooftrees.     Jersey  City,  1908. 
Horton,  Frederick  Leonard. 

The  Dream  of  Love  and  Fire.     Boston,  1888. 
Howe,  Mrs.  Julia  Ward. 

Is  Polite  Society  Polite  and  Other  Essays.     Boston  and  New 

York,  1895. 
HoxiE,  Walter  Palmer. 

From  Within.     Philadelphia,  1891. 
HoYT,  Charles  Summer. 

The  Octave  of  Life.     1901.     (Published  by  the  Author.)      - 
Hubbard,  Alice. 

Life  Lessons.     East  Aurora,  N.  Y.,  1909. 
Hubbard,  Bela. 

Memorials  of  a  Half  Century.     New  York,  1887. 
Hubbard,  Elbert. 

As  It  Seems  to  Me.     East  Aurora,  N.  Y.,  1898. 

A  Message  to  Garcia.     East  Aurora,  N.  Y.,  1899. 

Little  Journeys.     Vols.  1-25.     East  Aurora,  N.  Y.,  1895- 

1909. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.      (  113 

Hubbard,  F.  C. 

Through  Library  Windows.     New  York,  1909./ 
HuBNER,  Charles  W. 

Poems  and  Essays.     New  York,  1881. 
Hudson,  Henry  N. 

Studies  in  Wordsworth.     Boston,  1884./ 
Hughes,  Bruce,  A.B.,  A.M.,  S.T.D.        / 

Nuggets  of  Gold.     New  York,  1901.    \ 
Hull,  Mattie  E. 

Wayside  Jottings.     Des  Moines,  la.,  1888. 
Hunt,  Theodore  W.,  Ph.D. 

Studies  in  Literature  and  Style.     New  York,  1890. 
Huston,  Paul  Griswold. 

An  Old  Fashioned  Sugar  Camp  and  Other  Dreams  of  the 

Woods.     New  York  and  Chicago,  1903. 
Hutchinson,  William  Johnston. 

Wayside  Notes.     New  York,  1887. 
HuTTON,  Lawrence. 

From  the  Books.     New  York,  1902. 

Other  Times  and  Other  Seasons.     New  York,  1895. 
Hyde,  A.B.,  D.D. 

Essays.     New  York,  1885. 

Ingraham,  Charles  A. 

Steps  up  Life's  Ladder.     An  Old  Doctor's  Letters  to  a  Young 

Friend.     Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,   1905. 
Ingraham,  J.  H. 

The  American  Lounger.     Philadelphia,  1839. 
Jackson,  Revd.  A.  W. 

Deafness  and  Cheerfulness.     Boston,  1901. 
Jefferson,  Charles  Edward. 

The  Old  Year  and  the  New.     New  York,  1907. 
Jewett,  Sarah  Orne. 

Country  By-ways.     Boston,  1881. 
Johnson,  Charles  F.,  A.M. 

Three  Americans  and  Three  Englishmen.     New  York,  1886. 
Johnstone,  Richard  Malcolm. 

Studies  Literary  and  Social.     Indianapolis,  1901. 
JoLiNE,  Adrian  Hoffman. 

The  Autograph  Hunter  and  Other  Papers.     Chicago,  1907. 

The  Book  Collector  and  Other  Papers.     Greenwich,  Conn., 

1904. 

At  the  Library  Table.     Boston,  1910. 
Jones,  William  Alfred,  A.M. 

Characters  and  Criticisms.     New  York,  1857. 

Essays  upon  Authors  and  Books.     New  York,  1849. 

Literary  Studies.     New  York,  1847. 


114  Graduate  School  Publications. 

Jordan,  David  Starr. 

The  Philosophy  of  Despair.     San  Francisco,  1902. 

Life's  Enthusiasms.     Boston,  1906. 

The  Strength  of  Being  Clean.     Boston,  1900. 
Jordan,  William  George. 

The  Power  of  Truth.     New  York,  1902. 

The  Majesty  of  Calmness.     New  York  and  Chicago,  1898. 
Joyce,  Col.  John  A. 

Brick-bats  and  Bouquets.     New  York,  1902. 
JUDSON,   L.   C. 

The  Probe.     Philadelphia,  1846. 

Keeler,  Lucy  Elliot. 

If  I  Were  a  Boy.     Boston  and  Chicago,  1908. 

If  I  Were  a  Girl  Again.     Boston  and  Chicago,  1904. 
Kelley,  William  V. 

The  Ripening  Experience  of  Life  and  Other  Essays.     New 

York,  1907. 
Kelso,  Josia  A. 

Day  Dreams.     Cincinnati,  1878. 
Kennard,  Joseph  Spencer. 

The  Fallen  God  and  Other  Essays  in  Literature  and  Art. 

Philadelphia,  1901. 
Kennedy,  Daniel  Edward. 

Undine  and  Our  Sylvan  World.     Brookline,  Mass.,  1906. 
Kennedy,  John  P. 

At  Home  and  Abroad.     New  York,  1872. 

Occasional  Addresses.     New  York,  1872. 
Kenny,  Patrick. 

Wayside  Thoughts.     Morgantown,  W.  Va.,  1903. 
King,  Henry  T. 

Essays.     Philadelphia,  1889. 

The  ligotist  Essays  of  Life.     Philadelphia,  1880. 

The  Idealist.     Philadelphia,  1892. 
King,  Thomas  Starr. 

Patriotism  and  Other  Papers.     Boston,  1864. 

Substance  and  Show  and  Other  Lectures.     Boston,  1877. 
Kinsley,  William  W. 

Views  on  Vexed  Questions.     Philadelphia,  1881. 
KiRKHAM,  Stanton  Davis. 

The  Ministry  of  Beauty.     San  Francisco  and  New  York^ 

1907. 

In  the  Open.     San  Francisco,  1908. 

Resources.     New  York,  1910. 
Knapp,  Adeline. 

Upland  Pastures.     San  Francisco,  1904. 
Knight,  G.  T.,  D.D. 

The  Praise  of  Hypocrisy.     Chicago,  1906. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  115 

Kraber,  John  L.     (An    Ambiguist.) 

Ambiguities.     New  York,  1901. 
Kreymborg,  Alfred. 

Love  and  Life  and  Other  Studies.     New  York,  1908. 
KuLP,  George  B. 

Historical  Essays.     Wilkesbarre,  Pa.,  1892. 

Lacy,  Francis  D. 

Nature's  Harmony.     New  York,  1883. 
Lanier,  Sidney. 

Retrospects  and  Prospects.     New  York,  1899. 
Lanman,  Charles. 

Essays  for  Summer  Hours.     Boston,  1841. 
Leggett,  M.  D. 

A  Dream  of  a  Modest  Prophet.     Philadelphia,  1890. 
Leland,  Charles  Godfrey. 

Sunshine  in  Thought.     New  York,  1862. 
Leslie,  Mrs.  Miriam  Florence. 

Are  Men  Gay  Deceivers?   and  Other  Sketches.     Chicago, 

1893. 
Lieber,  Francis. 

Miscellaneous  Writings.     Philadelphia,  1881. 
Lloyd,  J.  William. 

Dawn-thought  on  the  Reconciliation.     Westfield,   N.   Y., 

1900. 
Locke,  Charles  Edward. 

A  Nineteenth-Century  Crusader.     Cincinnati,  1902. 

The  Typical  American.     Cincinnati,  1902. 
LocKHART,  Arthur  John. 

The  Papers  of  Pastor  Felix.     Cincinnati,  1903. 
Lodge,  Henry  Cabot. 

A  Fighting  Frigate  and  Other  Essays  and  Addresses.     New 

York,  1902. 

A  Frontier  Town  and  Other  Essays.     New  York,  1906. 

Certain  Accepted  Heroes.     New  York  and  London,  1897. 

Historical  and  Political  Essays.     Boston  and  New  York, 

1892. 
London,  Jack. 

Revolution  and  Other  Essays.     New  York,  1910. 
LooMis,  Charles  Battell. 

A  Bath  in  an  English  Tub.     New  York,  1907. 

The  Knack  of  It.     Some  Essays  in  Optimism.     New  York 

and  Chicago,  1906. 
LooMis,  Eben  J. 

Wayside  Sketches.     Boston,  1894. 
LoRiMER,  George  C,  D.D. 

Messages  of  Today  to  Men  of  Tomorrow.     Philadelphia, 

1896. 


116  Graduate  School  Publications. 

LoTTS,  William. 

More  Notes  from  Underledge.     New  York,  1904. 

LuKENS,  Susan. 

Gleanings  at  Seventy  Five.     Philadelphia,  1873. 

M.  A.  C. 

Reflections  of  a  Lonely  Man.     Chicago,  1903. 
Macarthur,  Arthur,  LL.D. 

Essays  and  Addresses.     Washington,  D.  C,  1893. 
Macarthur,  Robert  Stewart. 

Current  Questions  for  Thinking  Men.     Philadelphia,  1898. 
McArthur,  Henry  G. 

This  and  That.     Chicago,  1898. 
McCarby,  Revd.  J.  Hendrickson. 

The  Black  Horse  and  Carryall.     Cincinnati,  1873. 
Mackaye,  Marie  Ellery. 

The   Abbess   of   Port   Royal   and   Other   French   Studies. 

Boston,  1892. 
McSherry,  Richard. 

Essays  and  Lectures.     Baltimore,  1869. 
McTuRNAN,  Lawrence. 

The  Personal  Equation.     New  York  and  Boston,  1910. 
Mahan,  Alfred  Thayer. 

Retrospect  and  Prospect.     Boston,  1902. 
Marks,  A.  H. 

Igeme  and  Other  Writings.     New  York,  1897. 
Martin,  Edward  Sand  ford. 

Cousin  Anthony  and  I.     New  York,  1895. 

Lucid  Intervals.     New  York  and  London,  1900. 

In  a  New  Century.     New  York,  1908. 

Windfalls  of  Observation.     New  York,  1893. 
Martin.  J.  T. 

A  Voice  from  the  West.     St.  Louis,  1908. 
Martin,  L.  A. 

Random  Flashes.     Chillicothe,  Mo.,  1894. 
Marvin,  Fredric  Rowland. 

The  Excursions  of  a  Booklover.     Boston,  1910. 

The   Companionship   of  Books  and   Other  Papers.     New 

York  and  London,  1895. 
Masson,  Thomas  L. 

The  New  Plato.     New  York,  1908. 
Masters,  Edgar  Lee. 

The  New  Star  Chamber  and  Other  Essays.     Chicago,  1904. 
Mathews,  Albert.     (Paul  Siegvolk.) 

A  Bundle  of  Papers.     New  York,  1879. 

Ruminations.     New  York,  1893. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  117 

Mathews,  William,  LL.D. 

The  Great  Conversers  a;nd  Other  Essays.     Chicago,     1874. 

Hours  with  Men  and  Books.     Chicago,  1876. 

Literary  Style  and  Other  Essays.     CMcago,  1881. 

Men,  Places  and  Things.     Chicago,  1887. 

Nugae  Litterariae.     Boston,  1896. 
Matson,  Henry. 

Knowledge  and  Culture.     Chicago,  1895. 
Matthews,  Brander. 

Americanisms  and  Briticisms.     New  York,  1892. 

The  Historical  Novel  and  Other  Essays.     New  York,  1901. 

Inquiries  and  Opinions.     New  York,  1907. 

Pen  and  Ink.     New  York,  1902. 

The  American  of  the  Future  and  Other  Essays.     New  York, 

1909. 
Mayes,  Josie  C. 

Breezes  from  the  Southland.     New  York,  1909. 
Memminger,  Revd.  R.  W.,  A.M. 

Reflections  of  a  Recluse.     Philadelphia,  1878. 
Metcalf,  Edwin  S. 

A  Volume  of  Essays  and  Poems.     Chicago,  1907. 
Milburn,  William  Henry. 

The  Rifle,  Axe  and  Saddle  Bags.     New  York,  1857. 
Miller,  Joaquin. 

The  Building  of  the  City  Beautiful.     New  York,  1905. 

Memorie  and  Rime.     New  York,  1884. 
Miller,  J.  R.,  D.D. 

Things  to  Live  For.     New  York,  1896. 

The  Upper  Currents.     New  York,  1902. 
Miller,  Olive  Thorne. 

Little  Brothers  of  the  Air.     Boston,  1892. 
Miller,  S. 

Letters  from  a  Father  to  his  Son  in  College.     Philadelphia, 

1843. 
Miller,  W.  H. 

The  Mirage  of  Life.     Chicago,  1898. 
Mills,  Simeon. 

The  Moon-Light  Papers.     Madison,  Wis.,  1890. 
MiLNER,  George. 

Country  Pleasures.     Boston,  1881. 
MoNAHAN,  Michael. 

Palms  of  Papyrus.     East  Orange,  N.  J.,  1908. 

Benigna  Vena.     New  York,  1904. 
MooRHEAD,  Isaac. 

Occasional  Writings.     Erie,  Pa.,  1882. 
Morgan,  Charles  Carroll. 

Variety  Papers.     Boston,  1910. 
Morris,  James  W.     (Jacques  Mairice.) 

K-N  Papers  and  Other  Condiments.     New  York,  1859. 


118  Graduate  School  Publications. 

Morris,  Robert  T. 

Hopkin's  Pond  and  Other  Sketches.     New  York,  1896. 
Morris,  Revd.  T.  A.,  D.D. 

Miscellany.     Cincinnati,  1852. 
Morton,  Sarah  Wentworth. 

My  Mind  and  Its  Thoughts.     Boston,  1823. 
MouLTON,  Louise  Chandler. 

Ourselves  and  Our  Neighbors.     Boston,  1887. 

Random  Rambles.     Boston,  1881. 
MuNGER,  Theodore  T. 

Essays  for  the  Day.     Boston,  1904. 

On  the  Threshold.     Boston  and  New  York,  1880. 
Murray,  J.     (Constantia.) 

The  Gleaner.     A  Miscellaneous  Production  in  3  Volumes. 

Boston,  1798. 

Newcomb,  Charles  B. 

AlFs  Right  with  the  World.     Boston,  1897. 

Discovery  of  a  Lost  Trail.     Boston,  1900. 
Newman,  Eugene  W.     (Savoyard.) 

Essays  on  Men,  Things  and  Events.     New  York,  1904. 
Newton,  William  Wilberforce. 

Essays  of  Today.     Boston,  1879. 
Nichols,  Walter,  A.B. 

Essays  and  Miscellaneous  Writings.     New  York,  1826. 
Nicholson,  Asenath. 

Loose  Papers.     New  York,  1853. 
Noah,  M.  M. 

Gleanings  from  a  Gathered  Harvest.     New  York,  1845. 
NoRRis,  Frank. 

The  Responsibilities  of  the  Novelist  and  Other  Literary 

Essays.     New  York,  1903. 
Norton,  John  M. 

Sketches,  Literary  and  Theological.     New  York,  1872. 
Nye,  William  E.     (Bill  Nye.) 

Baled  Hay.     New  York  and  Chicago,  1884. 

Forty  Liars  and  Other  Lies.     New  York  and  Chicago,  1882. 

Remarks.     Chicago,  1887. 

Osgood,  Samuel,  D.D. 

The  Hearthstone.  New  York,  1876. 
American  Leaves.  New  York,  1867. 
Mile  Stones  in  Our  Life-Journey.     New  York,  1854. 

Parker,  Theodore. 

Critical  and  Miscellaneous  Writings.     Boston,  1843. 
Parsons,  Theophilus. 

The  Professor's  Letters.     Boston,  1891. 

Essays.     Boston,  1863. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  119 

Pakton,  James. 

Topics  of  the  Times.     Boston,  1871. 
Payne,  William  Morton. 

Editorial  Echoes.     Chicago,  1902. 

Little  Leaders.     Chicago,  1895. 

Various  Views.     Chicago,  1902. 
Peabody,  Elizabeth  P. 

Last  Evening  with  Allston  and  Other  Papers.     Boston,  1886. 
Pearson,  Charles  William. 

Literary  and  Biographical  Essays.     Boston,  1908. 
Peaslee,  John  Bradley. 

Thoughts  and  Experiences  in  and  Out  of  School.     Cincin- 
nati, 1900. 
Peck,  Harry  Thurston. 

The  Personal  Equation.     New  York  and  London,  1898. 

What  is  Good  English  and  Other  Essays.     New  York,  1899. 

Studies  in  Several  Literatures.     New  York,  1909. 
Perkins,  Mary  H. 

From  My  Corner.     New  York,  1894. 

Through  My  Spectacles.     New  York,  1898. 
Perry,  Bliss. 

The  Amateur  Spirit.     Boston  and  New  York,  1904. 

Park  St.  Papers.     Boston  and  New  York,  1908. 
Perry,  Mrs.  C.  E.     (Elfin  Hall.) 

Tween  You  and  Me.     Albany,  1879. 
Perry,  Thomas  Sergeant. 

The  Evolution  of  the  Snob.     Boston,  1887. 
Peters,  Madison,  C,  D.D. 

The  Man  Who  Wins.     New  York  and  Boston,  1908. 
Phelps,  Austin. 

My  Portfolio.     New  York,  1882. 

My  Study  and  Other  Essays.     New  York,  1886. 
Phelps,  E.  J. 

Orations  and  Essays.     New  York,  1901. 
Phillips,  John  Herbert. 

Old  Tales  and  Modern  Ideals.    New  York  and  Chicago,  1905. 
Pier,  Arthur  Stanwood. 

The  Young  in  Heart.     Boston  and  New  York,  1907. 
Pomeroy,  Marcus  Mills. 

Our  Saturday  Nights.     New  York,  1870. 
Porter,  Rose. 

Life's  Everydayness.     New  York  and  Chicago,  1893. 
PoTWiN,  Lemuel  Stoughton. 

Selections  from  Editorial  Essays.     Cleveland,  1907. 
Prescott,  W.  H. 

Biographical  and  Critical  Miscellanies.     Philadelphia,  1882. 

Biographical  and  Critical  Miscellanies.     Philadelphia,  1895. 
Preston,  Margaret  J. 

A  Handful  of  Monographs.     New  York,  1886. 


120  Graduate  School  Publications. 

Price,  James  H.,  Esq. 

Miscellany  in  Verse  and  Prose. 
Prime.  W.  C. 

Among  the  Northerlit  Hills.     New  York,  1895. 
The  Owl  Creek  Letters.     New  York,  1848. 

QuAYLE,  William  A. 

God's  Calendar.     Cincinnati,  1907. 

A  Hero  and  Some  Other  Folks.     Cincinnati,  1900. 

The  Poets'  Poet  and  Other  Essays.     Cincinnati,  1897. 

The  Prairie  and  the  Sea.     Cincinnati,  1905. 
Quint ARD,  Edward. 

Extra  Muros  and  Other  Essays.     New  York,  1906. 

Reardon,  T.  H. 

Petrarch  and  Other  Essays.     San  Francisco,  1893. 
Reed,  Myrtle. 

The  Spinster  Book.     New  York,  1901. 
Reed,  S.  R. 

Offthoughts  About  Women  and  Other  Things.     Chicago, 

1888. 
Reed,  William  Bradford. 

Among  My  Books.     New  York,  1871. 
Reedy,  William  Marion. 

The  Law  of  Love.     East  Aurora,  N.  Y.,  1906. 
Rice,  Harvey. 

Nature  and  Culture.     Boston,  1875. 
Riley,  H.  H. 

The  Puddleford  Papers.     New  York,  1857. 
Roe,  Frederick  William,  Ph.D. 

Thomas  Carlyle  as  a  Critic  of  Literature.     New  York,  1910. 
Roosevelt,  Theodore. 

American  Ideals  and  Other  Essays.     New  York,  1897. 

The  Strenuous  Life.     New  York,  1900. 

Outlook  Editorials.     New  York,  1909. . 
Rush,  Benjamin,  M.D. 

Essays;  Literary,  Moral  and  Philosophical.     Philadelphia, 

1806. 
RussEL,  A.  p. 

Half  Tints.     New  York,  1867. 

Literary  Notes.     New  York,  1875. 

A  Club  of  One.     Boston,  1887. 

In  a  Club  Corner.     Boston  and  New  York,  1890. 

Characteristics.     Sketches  and  Essays.     Boston,  1894. 

Sub-Coelum.     Boston  and  New  York,  1893. 
Rutherford,  W.  R. 

Cheeriness.     San  Francisco,  1906. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  121 

Sanborn,  Kate. 

Wit  of  Women.     New  York,  1885. 

The  Vanity  and  Insanity  of  Genius.     New  York,  1885. 

My  Literary  Zoo.     New  York,  1896. 

My  Favorite  Lectures  of  Long  Ago.     Boston,  1898. 

Tact  and  Other  Essays.     Boston  and  Chicago,  1899. 
Sands,  A.  H. 

Recreations  of  a  Southern  Barrister.     Philadelphia,  1859. 
Sangster,  Margaret  E. 

With  My  Neighbors.     New  York,  1896. 

The  Daily  Pathway.     New  York,  1904. 
Santayana,  George. 

Interpretations  of  Poetry  and  Religion.     New  York,  1900. 
Saunders,  Frederick. 

Pastime  Papers.     London,  1885. 

Character  Studies.     New  York,  1894. 

Mosaics.     New  York,  1859. 

Salad  for  the  Solitary  and  Social.     New  York,  1883. 

Stray  Leaves  of  Literature.     New  York,  1888. 
Sawyer,  Frederick  W. 

Hints  at  American  Whims.     Boston,  1860. 
Schuyler,  Eugene. 

Italian  Influences.     New  York,  1901. 

Selected  Essays.     New  York,  1901. 
Scott,  Revd.  W.  J. 

Lectures  and  Essays.     Atlanta,  Ga.,  1889. 
ScuDDER,  Horace  E. 

Men  and  Letters.     Boston  and  New  York,  1887. 

Childhood  in  Literature  and  Art.     Boston  and  New  York, 

1894. 
Sedgwick,  Henry  Dwight. 

Essays  on  Great  Writers.     Boston,  1861. 

The  New  American  Type  and  Other  Essays.     Boston,  1905. 
Serl,  Elmer  Willis. 

Swinging  Tree  Tops.     New  York  and  Washington,  1907. 
Shackford,  Charles  Chauncy. 

Social  and  Literary  Papers.     Boston,  1892. 
Sharp,  Dallas  Lore. 

The  Lay  of  the  Land.     Boston,  1908. 
Shepard,  J. 

Essays  and  Pen-Pictures.     Paris,  1889. 
Sherman,  Ellen  Burns. 

Taper  Lights.     New  York,  1897. 

Why  Love  Grows  Cold.     New  York,  1903. 

Words  to  the  Wise  and  Others.     New  York,  1907. 
Shillaber,  (Ruth  Partington). 

Knitting  Work.     Boston,  1859. 
Showerman,  Grant. 

With  the  Professor.     New  York,  1910. 


122  Graduate  School  Publications, 

SiGOUBNEY,  Mks.  L.  H.     (Lydia  Huntley.) 

Moral  Pieces  in  Prose  and  Verse.     Hartford,  Conn.,  1815. 

Scenes  in  My  Native  Land.     London,  1845. 

The  Faded  Hope.     New  York,  1865. 

Past  Meridian.     New  York,  1854. 
SiKEs,  Mrs.  West.     (Olive  Logan.) 

Apropos  of  Women  and  Theatres.     New  York,  1869. 
Skinner,  Charles  M. 

Do  Nothing  Days.     Philadelphia,  1899. 
Smiley,  J.  B. 

A  Basket  of  Chips.     Kalamazoo,  Mich.,  1886. 
Smiley,  Sarah  F. 

Garden  Graith.     New  York,  1880. 
Smith,  Charles  Foster. 

Reminiscences  and  Sketches.     Nashville,  Tenn.,  1908. 
Smith,  Charles  H. 

The  Farm  and  the  Fireside.     Atlanta,  Ga.,  1891. 
Smith,  F.  Hopkinson. 

Old  Fashioned  Folk.     Boston,  1907. 
Smith,  Garnet. 

The  Melancholy  of  Stephen  Allard.     New  York,  1893. 
Smith,  Col.  Nicholas. 

Masters  of  Old  Age.     Milwaukee,  Wis.,  1905. 
Smith,  Mrs.  R.  H. 

Essays  of  Cheer.     New  York,  1905. 
South,  Mrs.  Endora  Lindsay.     (Endora.) 

Wayside  Notes  and  Fireside  Thoughts.     St.  Louis,  1884, 
Spofford,  Harriet  Prescott. 

House  and  Hearth.     New  York,  1891. 
Stanton,  Henry  B. 

Recollections.     New  York,  1887. 
Stearns,  Frank  Preston. 

The  Real  and  Ideal  in  Literature.     Boston,  1892. 

Cambridge  Sketches.     Philadelphia,  1905. 
Stellman,  Louis  J. 

Said  the  Observer.     San  Francisco,  Cal.,  1903. 
Stevens,  Abel,  LL.D. 

Character  Sketches.     New  York,  1882. 
Stewart,  Charles  D. 

Essays  on  the  Spot.     Boston,  1910. 
Stoddard,  Charles  Warren. 

Exits  and  Entrances.     Boston,  1903. 
Stoddard,  John  L. 

Red-Letter  Days  Abroad.     Boston,  1884. 
Stoddard,  Richard  Henry. 

Under  the  Evening  Lamp.     New  York,  1892. 

Essays.     New  York,  1861. 
Stork,  T.,  D.D. 

Afternoon.     Philadelphia,  1874. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  123 

Stowe,  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher.     (Christopher  Crowfield.) 

The  Chimney  Corner.     Boston,  1868. 

Little  Foxes.     Boston,  1893. 
Stowell,  Frederick  W. 

Ragtime  Philosophy.     San  Francisco,  1902. 
Strausse,  Juliette  V.     (The  Country  Contributor.) 

The  Ideas  of  a  Plain  Country  Woman.     New  York,  1898. 
Sutherland,  T.  J. 

Loose  Leaves  from  the  Portfolio  of  a  Late  Patriot  Prisoner 

in  Canada.     New  York,  1840. 
Swing,  David. 

Motives  of  Life.     Chicago,  1879. 

Club  Essays.     Chicago,  1889. 

Old  Pictures  of  Life.     Chicago,  1894. 
Syle,  L.  D. 

Essays  in  Dramatic  Criticism.     New  York,  1898. 
Sylvester,  Herbert  Milton. 

Prose  Pastorals.     Boston,  1887. 

Homestead  Highways.     Boston,  1888. 

Taber,  Mary  J. 

Just  a  Few  "Friends."     Philadelphia,  1907. 
Taristo,  Louis  Fitzgerald. 

Random  Shots  and  Southern  Breezes.     New  York,  1842. 
Taylor,  Benjamin  F. 

The  World  on  Wheels  and  Other  Sketches.     Chicago,  1874. 
Taylor,  William  H.,  M.D. 

De  Quibas  Discourses  and  Essays.     Richmond,  Va.,  1908. 
Thayer,  William  M. 

Turning  Points  in  Successful  Careers.     New  York,  1895. 
Thayer,  William  Roscoe. 

Italica.     Studies  in  Italian  Life  and  Letters.     Boston,  1908. 
Thomas,  Edith  M. 

The  Round  Year.     Boston,  1886. 
Thomas,  F.  Morriston,  Ph.D. 

Idylls  of  the  Beautiful.     Newark,  Ohio,  1907. 
Thompson,  Hugh  Miller. 

''Copy  "  Essays  from  an  Editor's  Drawer.     New  York,  1885. 

More  ''Copy."  New  York,  1897. 
Thompson,  Ellen. 

A  Book  of  Hours.     New  York,  1909. 
Thompson,  Maurice. 

By-ways  and  Bird  Notes.     New  York,  1885. 

My  Winter  Garden.     New  York,  1900. 
Thorne,  William  Henry. 

Modern  Idols.     Philadelphia,  1887. 
Thurston,  Elizabeth  A. 

Mosaics  of  Life.     Philadelphia,  1880. 
Thurston,  Ernest  Temple. 

The  Patchwork  Papers.     New  York,  1911. 


124  Graduate  School  Publications. 

TiLLEY,  Mrs.  James  B.  D. 

Masters  of  the  Situation.     Chicago,  1887. 
Tiffany,  Francis. 

Bird-bolts.     Boston,  1882. 
TiLTON,  Howard  W. 

Lay  Sermons.     New  York,  1899. 
TiLTON,  Theodore. 

Sanctus  Sanctorum.     New  York,  1870. 
ToRREY,  Bradford. 

Friends  on  the  Shelf.     Boston,  1906. 
Townsend,  F. 

Mutterings  and  Musings  of  an  Invalid.     New  York,  1851. 

Fancies  of  a  Whimsical  Man.     New  York,  1852. 

Ghostly  Colloquies.     New  York,  1855. 
Trail,  F. 

Studies  in  Criticism.     New  York,  1888. 
Traver,  Alvah,  A.m. 

Miscellaneous  Essays.     New  York,  1885. 
Trent,  William  P. 

The  Authority  of  Criticism.     New  York,  1899. 

Greatness  in  Literature.     New  York,  1905. 

Longfellow  and  Other  Essays.     New  York,  1910. 
Trine,  Ralph  Waldo. 

What  All  the  World's  A-Seeking.     New  York,  1896. 

In  the  Fire  of  the  Heart.     New  York,  1906. 
Trumbull,  Henry  Clay. 

Aspirations  and  Influences.     Philadelphia,  1889. 

Character-Shaping  and  Character-Showing.     Philadelphia, 

1889. 

Duty-Knowing  and  Duty-Doing.     Philadelphia,  1889. 

Ourselves  and  Others.     Philadelphia,  1889. 

Practical  Paradoxes.     Philadelphia,  1889. 

Seeing  and  Being.     Philadelphia,  1889. 
Tucker,  G. 

Essays.    Georgetown,  D.  C,  1822. 

A  Voyage  to  the  Moon.     New  York,  1827. 
Tudor,  William,  Jr. 

Miscellanies.     Boston,  1821. 
TuppER,  Kerr  Boise,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Gladstone  and  Other  Addresses.     Philadelphia,  1898. 
TouRGEE,  Albion  W. 

Letters  to  a  King.     Cincinnati,  1888. 

The  Veteran  and  His  Pipe.     Chicago,  1902. 

Upton,  George  P. 

Letters  of  Peregrine  Pickle.     Chicago,  1869. 

Van  Norden,  Charles. 

The  Outermost  Rim.     New  York,  1882. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature,  125 

Van  Santvoord,  Cornelius. 

Discourses  on  Special  Occasions.     New  York,  1856. 
Van  Santvoord,  Harold. 

Half  Holidays.     New  York,  1888. 
Verdi,  Tullio  S.,  M.D. 

The  Infant  Philosopher.     New  York,  1886. 
Vermilye,  a.  G.,  D.D. 

Stray  Reveries.     New  York  and  Chicago,  1887. 
Verplank,  G.  C. 

Miscellanies.     New  York,  1833. 

Discourses  on  Subjects  of  American  History,  Arts  and  Lit- 
erature.    New  York,  1833. 
Very,  Lydia  L.  A. 

An  Old  Fashioned  Garden.     Salem,  Mass.,  1900. 
ViERECK,  George  Sylvester. 

Confessions  of  a  Barbarian.     New  York,  1910. 
Vincent,  Leon  H. 

The  Bibliotaph  and  Other  Essays.     Boston  and  New  York, 

1898. 

Waddell,  William. 

Essays.     (In  his  The  Red  Man.)     St.  Louis,  1903. 
Ward,  S.,  Jr. 

Essays   Republished   from   Various   Periodicals.     Philadel- 
phia, 1834. 
Washburne,  Marion  Foster. 

Everyday  Essays.     New  York  and  Chicago,  1904. 
Washington,  Booker  T. 

Putting  the  Most  into  Life.     New  York,  1906. 
Waters,  Harry  Guy.  (Salvarona.) 

Loves  of  Great  Men  and  Other  Essays.     Boston,  1902. 
Waters,  N.  McGee. 

Heroes  and  Heroism  in  Common  Life.     New  York,  1907. 
Watterson,  Henry. 

The  Compromises  of  Life.     New  York,  1903. 
Webbe,  Cornelius. 

The  Man  About  Town.     Philadelphia,  1839. 
Wells,  C.  F. 

My  Uncle  Toby.     His  Table  Talks  and  Reflections.     Cin- 
cinnati, 1875. 
Wells,  Kate  Garnett. 

About  Peoples.     Boston,  1885. 
Wendell,  Barrett. 

The  Privileged  Classes.     New  York,  1908. 

The  Mystery  of  Education.     New  York,  1909. 

Stelligeri,   and    Other   Essays  Concerning  America.     New 

York,  1893. 
Whistler,  J.  A.  McN. 

Ten  O'clock.     Boston  and  New  York,  1888. 

The  Gentle  Art  of  Making  Enemies.     New  York,  1890. 


12^  Graduate  School  Publications, 

White,  Charles,  D.D. 

Essays  in  Literature  and  Ethics.     Boston,  1853. 
Whiting,  Charles  Goodrich. 

The  Saunterer.     Boston,  1886. 
Wilcox,  Ella  Wheeler. 

New  Thought  Common  Sense.     Chicago,  1908. 

WiLDMAN,    ROUNSEVILLE. 

As  Talked  in  the  Sanctum.     Boston,  1900. 
WiLKIE,   F.   B. 

"Walks  about   Chicago"    and    Army    and    Miscellaneous 

Sketches.     Chicago,  1869. 
Wilkinson,  William  Cleaver. 

A  Free  Lance  in  the  Field  of  Life  and  Letters.     New  York, 

1874. 

The  Good  of  Life  and  Other  Little  Essays.     New  York  and 

London,  1910. 
Williams,  Martha  McCulloch. 

Field-farings.     New  York,  1892. 

Next  to  the  Ground.     New  York,  1901. 
Williams,  R.  H. 

Essays.     New  York,  1901. 
Willing,  Jennie  Fowler. 

Diamond  Dust.     Cincinnati,  1880. 
Willis    N.  P. 

Rural  Letters.     New  York,  1849. 

Hurry-Graphs.     New  York,  1851. 

The  Opal.     New  York,  1844. 
•     The  Ragbag.     New  York,  1855. 

Outdoors  at  Idlewild.     New  York,  1855. 
Wilson,  Woodrow. 

Mere  Literature  and  Other  Essays.     Boston,  1896. 
WiNGATE,  Charles. 

Twilight  Club  Tracts.     New  York,  1889. 
Winter,  William. 

Brief  Chronicles.     New  York,  1889-1890. 

Brown  Heath  and  Blue  Bells.     New  York,  1896. 
Winter,  William. 

Gray  Days  and  Gold.     New  York,  1896. 

Old  Friends.     New  York,  1909. 

Other  Days.     New  York,  1908. 

Old  Shrines  and  Ivy.     New  York  and  London,  1892. 
Wirt,  William. 

Letters  of  the  British  Spy.     Baltimore,  1811. 

The  Old  Bachelor.     Baltimore,  1818. 
WiTHiNGTON,  Revd.  Leonard.     (John  Oldbug,  Esq.) 

The  Puritan.     Philadelphia,  1836. 
WixoN,  Susan. 

Right  Living.     Chicago,  1894. 


The  Essay  in  American  Literature.  127 

Wood  BERRY,  George  Ed. 

Studies  in  Letters  and  Life.     Boston  and  New  York,  1891. 

Heart  of  Man.     New  York,  1899. 

The  Torch.     New  York,  1905. 

The  Appreciation  of  Literature.     New  York,  1907. 
Woodbury,  Charles  J. 

Talks  with  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson.     New  York,  1890. 
WOODLING,   M.   E.,  M.D. 

After  Many  Years.     New  York,  1902. 
Woods,  George  Bryant. 

Essays.     Boston,  1873. 
Woodward,  Brinton  W. 

Old  Wine  in  New  Bottles.     Lawrence,  Kan.,  1890. 
WooLEY,  Celia  Parker. 

The  Western  Slope.     Evanston,  1903. 
WooLSON,  Abba  Goold. 

Browsing  among  Books  and  Other  Essays.     Boston,  1881. 

George  Eliot  and  Her  Heroines.     New  York,  1886. 
Wright,  Mabel  Osgood. 

The  Friendship  of  Nature.     New  York,  1894. 


VITA. 

Adaline  May  Conway,  born  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  1882; 
daughter  of  Thomas  W.  Conway  (Civil  War  Chaplain,  Minister, 
Editor,  Educator,  State  Superintendent  of  Education  in  Louisi- 
ana, Superintendent  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Gulf);  attended  Port  Richmond  High  School: 
entered  the  Normal  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1899, 
receiving  the  Bachelor's  degree  in  1902;  entered  New  York 
University  in  1905,  receiving  the  Master's  degree  in  1908. 
(Thesis:  "English  Romanticism  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  as 
Shown  in  the  Works  of  Matthew  Gregory  Lewis");  received 
the  Doctor's  degree  in  1911;  Instructor  in  PubUc  School  No. 
20,  Manhattan,  1902-1905,  and  in  Public  School  No.  130, 
Brooklyn,  1905-1911;  resigned  from  teaching  profession  in 
1911  to  engage  in  authorship  and  in  literary  and  historical  re- 
search; author  of  ''A  Silent  Peal  from  the  Liberty  Bell,"  pub- 
lished in  Philadelphia,  1914,  and  other  works  to  be  issued. 


\ 


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